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AUSTRIA 




K. Koller.l 



THE EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH. 



[Budapest. 



THE STORY OF THE NATIONS 



AUSTRIA 



BY 



SIDNEY WHITMAN 

AUTHOR OF "IMPERIAL GERMANY," "THE REALM OF THE 
HABSBURGS," ETC. 



WITH THE COLLABORATION OF 

J. R. McILRAITH 



NEW YORK 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

LONDON : T. FISHER UNWIN 
1899 






Entered at Stationers' Hall, London 
By T. FISHER UNW1N 






■Cbe Iftnfcfeerbocber ipress, 1Rew ljJorfc 




PREFACE 



ACCORDING to the plan followed by the publishers 
of this eminently instructive series, the " Story of 
Austria " is restricted to the record of that particular 
portion of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire which 
from time immemorial has, to a great extent, been 
German in race and character ; and thus forms a 
product and part of German history and civilisation. 
Austria is to-day joined to the German Empire only 
by bonds of friendly alliance, but its " Story," bound 
up as it is with the history of the great ruling dynasty 
of Habsburg from which have sprung sovereigns for so 
long a series, overlaps a wide and heterogeneous his- 
torical area. In view of the shifting political configura- 
tion of the subject, the writer has regarded the " Story 
of Austria " as in the main the story of the dominant 
House, with its centre of interest based upon the 
events of those particular provinces of the Austrian 
Empire which (with Bohemia) now compose the 
Cisleithanic Empire, and which at all times have 
formed the home provinces of Habsburg Austria. 
It is these provinces which in the present day form 



Vlll PREFACE 

the south-eastward wedge of Teuton blood and civili- 
sation against the extension of which the Slavonic 
Bohemian and the Magyar Hungarian are waging 
a passive but determined opposition. Thus, from 
the point of view of the politician, Austria Proper 
presents in our time one of the most interesting 
fields for studying those endless problems of race 
and nationality which confront modern men more or 
less all over the world : the struggle of the survival 
of the fittest or strongest. 1 

This by way of reflection on the present. The 
past speaks for itself in the following pages. In 
dealing w r ith my theme I had two alternatives before 
me — either to treat of the principal historical events 
in proportion to their relative importance, or to give 
a succinct but unbroken record of the history of 
Austria as connected with the Imperial House. The 
former would have been a far more grateful task. 
On the other hand, the partly didactic character 
of this series and the almost incredible fact that no 
consecutive history of Austria such as this is exists in 
any language led me to forego the idea. Those who 
may desire to inform themselves more fully on such 
epoch-making phases of Austrian history as the 
strueele between Catholicism and Protestantism or 
the Seven Years' War, I would refer to existing 
works of a more special character, of which the 
number is legion. 

1 For more detailed treatment of these features of political Austria 
I venture to refer the reader to my earlier work, "The Realm of the 
Habsburgs." London : W. Heinemann. Leipzig : Tauchnitz Edition 
of British Authors. 



PREFACE 



IX 



It will be observed that in the spelling of place 
names in general the local custom has been followed, 
but the better known localities have been indicated 
by the English equivalents. 

I am indebted to the authorities of the Imperial 
Hofbibliothek of Vienna, who have kindly granted 
me an unprecedented privilege by allowing me to 
select a number of beautiful illustrations from the 
late Archduke Rudolfs monumental work, " Die 
Oesterreichisdi-Uugarische Monarchie in Wort and 
Bi/d," for reproduction in the present volume. 

SIDNEY WHITMAN. 




CONTENTS 



I. 



The Empire at the Present Day 



PAGE 



Diverse Races — Austrian Scenery — Lakes and Rivers — Roads 
and Railways — Parliamentary Institutions — Law Courts. 



II. 



Early Inhabitants 



16-24 



The Cimbri and Teutones — The Marcomanni — The Romans 
in Austria. 

Ill 

From the Appearance of the Goths to the 

Reign of Charlemagne .... 25-44 

Incursions by Attila — Alboin — Attacks by the Avars — 
Bavaria and the Tyrol — Virgilius — Siege of Pa via — Sub- 
mission of the Avars. 

IV. 

From the Reign of Charlemagne to the Death 

of Henry II. of Saxony .... 45-55 

Death of Charlemagne — Trouble with Moravia — Louis the 
Child— Otto the Great— The Eastern March, 



xii CONTENTS 

V. 

PAGE 

The Franconian and Hohenstaufen Dynasties 56-68 

Invasion of Bohemia — End of the Franconian Dynasty — 
Vienna rising into Importance — Battle of Lodenitz — Death 
of Frederick the Warlike — The Great Interregnum. 

VI. 
Rudolph of Habsburg 69-82 

Ruldoph made King of the Romans — Rudolph at Vienna — 
Extension of Rudolph's Power — Trouble with Bohemia — 
Rudolph's Character. 

VII. 

From the Accession of Albrecht I. to the 

Death of Albrecht II 83-97 

Acquisition of Bohemia —Death of Albrecht I. — Trouble with 
Bavaria — Battle of Morgarten — Margaret Maultasch — Death 
of Albrecht II. 

VIII. 

From Rudolph IV. to Ladislaus Posthumus 98-1 11 

Re-acquisition of the Tyrol — Invasion of Italy — Defeat at 
Sempach — John Huss — ■ War with the Hussites — John 
Hunyadi— Death of Ladislaus Posthumus. 

IX. 

The Tyrolese and Styrian Lines . 11 2-1 23 

Frederick and Pope John — Death of Sigismund — Victories 
of the Swiss — Matthias Corvinus — Invasions of the Turks — 
Frederick's Ambition. 

X. 

Maximilian I. — The Reformation . . 124-136 

Affairs in Flanders — Peace of Trent — League of Cambray — 
Martin Luther — Maximilian's Character. 



CONTENTS Xlll 

XI. 

PAGE 

Charles V. — The Reformation . . . 137-148 

Progress of the Reformation — Peasant Revolts — Convention 
of Niirnberg — Battle of Luchau — Transfer of the Netherlands. 



XII. 

Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. — Union with 

Hungary 149-160 

The Bloody Diet — Ecclesiastical Reforms — Maximilian's 
Policy — Attacks by the Turks — Death of Maximilian. 



XIII. 

Rudolph II. and Matthias — Attack upon 

Protestantism 161-174 

Invasion by Mahomet — Affairs in Bohemia — Confirmation 
of Protestant Privileges — Deposition of Rudolph — Rebellion 
in Bohemia. 

XIV. 

Ferdinand II. and Ferdinand III. — The Thirty 

Years' War 175-193 

Successes by Tilly — Gustavus Adolphus — Battle of Liitzen — 
Peace of Heilbronn — Death of the Archduke Ferdinand. 



XV. 

Leopold I. (the Great) and Joseph I. — The War 

of the Spanish Succession . . . 194-2 11 

League of the Rhine — Peace of Nijmegen — War with France 
— John Sobieski — Peace of Carlovitz — Marlborough's Cam- 
paigns — Pacification of Hungary — Accession of Charles VI. 



XIV CONTENTS 

XVI. 

PAGE 

Charles VI. — Attacks by the Turks . 212-226 

Peace of Utrecht — Prince Eugene and the Turks — The 
Pragmatic Sanction — Peace with European Powers — The 
Polish Succession— Maria Theresia's Marriage ■ — Siege of 
Belgrade. 

XVII. 

Maria Theresia. — Rise of Prussian Power 227-240 

War with Prussia — Cession of Lower Silesia — Withdrawal of 
the French — Battle of Dettingen. 

XVIII. 

Maria Theresia {continued). — The Seven Years' 

War ....... 241-260 

Battle of Lobositz — Prussian Successes — Battle of Torgau — 
Conclusion of Peace — The Bavarian Succession. 



XIX. 

Joseph II. and Leopold II. — Loss of the 

Netherlands ...... 261-278 

Difficulties with the Netherlands — Successes over the Turks — 
Death of Joseph — Internal Reforms — Invasion of Belgium. 



XX. 

Francis II. {I. of Austria). — The French 

Revolution .- 279-292 

The French Revolution — Partition of Poland — War with the 
French — -Napoleon Buonaparte — Peace of Campio Formio — 
Marengo and Hohenlinden, 



COXTEXTS XV 

XXI. 



PAGE 



Francis II. (/. of Austria — continued). — Austria 

made an Empire ..... 293-307 

Combination against France — Battle of Austerlitz-— Peace of 
Tilsit — Andreas Hofer — Birth of Napoleon's Heir. 



XXII. 

Francis I., Emperor of Austria {continued). — 

Rivalry with Prussia .... 308-324 

War Renewed with France — Abdication of Murat — Austrian 
Emperor and Germany — Affairs in Italy — Neapolitan Revolt 
— Hungarian Grievances — Troubles in Italy — Death of 
Francis. 

XXIII. 

Ferdinand I. (of Austria) — Internal Troubles 

and Insurrections 325-340 

Occupation of Cracow — Outbreak in Hungary — Insurrection 
in Italy — Successes of the Italians — Agitation in Hungary- 
Kossuth. 

XXIV. 
Francis Joseph. — The Liberation of Italy 341-353 

Hungary declared Independent — Aggression of Prussia — The 
Danube made Free — Battle of Magenta — Political Reforms — 
Concessions to Hungary. 



XXV. 

Francis Joseph {continued). — War with Prus- 
sia 354-3 62 

Schleswig-Holstein Question — Prussian Alliance with Italy — 
Battle of Koniggriitz — Attitude of France. 



XVI CONTENTS 

XXVI. 

PAGE 

Francis Joseph (continued). — Recent Events 363-381 

War between Prussia and France — Agitation in Bohemia — 
Change of Ministry — Parliamentary Measures — Congress of 
Berlin — Menace on part of Russia — Growth of Anarchism — 
Assassination of the Empress. 

XXVII. 

Austrian Literature, Science, and Art . 382-402 

Lyric Poetry — Germanic Literary Influence — Later Austrian 
Poetry — Science in Austria — Physics and History — Mines and 
Minerals — Architecture. 

Index . , . . . . . . . 403 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



THE EMPEROR FRANCIS JOSEPH 



Frontispiece 



PAGE 

9 



i7 

27 

39 

V 

35 

131 



SALZBURG 

AUSTRIANS OF THE BRONZE AGE 

GERMAN RACE IN AUSTRIA 

AUSTRIANS AT BEGINNING OF CHRISTIAN ERA 

SEAT OF THE HABSBURGS ON THE AAR 

SEAL OF ALBRECHT I. 

LANCEMEN OF THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

MEDAL WITH PORTRAITS OF CHARLES V. AND 

FERDINAND I. ...... 140 

MAXIMILIAN II. 156 

VIENNA IN FIRST HALF OF SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 1 63 

FERDINAND II. . . . . . . 177 

ALBRECHT VON WALLENSTEIN l8l 

TILLY 185 

xvii 



XVU1 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



HOROSCOPE OF WALLENSTEIN . 
FERDINAND III. ..... 

MEDAL OF THE HOLY LEAGUE OF 1 684 . 
AUSTRIAN INFANTRY (1704-1710) . 
MARIA THERESIA ..... 

FRANCIS I. ...... 

COUNT WENZEL ANTON VON KAUNITZ 
AUSTRIAN GENERAL AND OFFICER . 
FIELD-MARSHAL LACY .... 

HANDWRITING OF MARIA THERESIA . 

JOSEPH II 

THE EMPEROR JOSEPH MONUMENT AT VIENNA 

AUSTRIAN HUSSAR AND INFANTRYMAN 

COUNT JOHANN PHILIP STADION 

THE LION OF ASPERN . 

CASTLE OF SCHONBRUNN 

JEWELS BELONGING TO HOUSE OF AUSTRIA 

INNSBRUCK ... ... 

FREIHERR GERARD VON SWIETEN 
SCHUBERT ...... 

MOZART ...... 



AUSTRIA 



THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 



Our term " Austria " is a somewhat corrupt Italian- 
ised form of the native Oesterreich, which, literally 
translated, means " The Eastern Kingdom." The 
country came to be so called, because the archduchy 
of Austria, the nucleus around which the now exist- 
ing Empire subsequently developed, had that position 
with respect to the rest of Germany. The present 
official designation, however, of what is known to us 
as the Austrian- Hungarian Empire is the Oesterrei- 
chisch-Ungarische Monarchic 

Taking the Empire as a whole, it must be described 
as of the most extensive character. Xext to Russia, 
it is the largest state in respect of superficial area in 
Europe. Its frontier line has a grand total length of 
5,396 miles, and including the occupied lands of 
Bosnia and Herzegovina, which may fairly be con- 
sidered as part of the Empire, it has a complete area 
of about 264,204 square miles. 

The Austrian-Hungarian territories may be classi- 
fied in three divisions : first, the lands of the Austrian 



2 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

Crown, or Cisleithan x lands (115,903 square miles); 
second, the lands of the Hungarian crown, or Trans- 
leithan lands (125,039 square miles); and, third, the 
territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina occupied and 
administered under the Treaty of Berlin of 1878 
(23,262 square miles). The Cisleithan lands include : 
Bohemia (in the north-west) ; Austrian Silesia, and 
Moravia (east of Bohemia) ; Upper and Lower 
Austria (south of Bohemia and Moravia) ; Salzburg, 
Styria and Carinthia (south of the Austrias) ; the 
Tyrol and Vorarlberg (west of Salzburg and 
Carinthia) ; Carniola and the Coast Land (south of 
Carinthia); Dalmatia (along the Adriatic); and Galicia 
and Bukowina (to the north-east of Hungary and 
bordering on the Russian Empire). The Transleithan 
lands include Hungary (east of the Austrias and 
Styria), Transylvania, Croatia, Slavonia, and Fiume 
(south of Hungary and Carniola). Lastly, Bosnia and 
Herzegovina are situated south of Slavonia and 
Croatia and to the east of Dalmatia. 

The Empire thus comprised is bounded, on the 
north, by the kingdom of Saxony and Prussian 
Silesia, Russian Poland, and Volhynia ; on the east, 
by the Russian provinces of Podolia and Bessarabia, 
and Rumania ; on the south, by Rumania, Servia, 
Turkey, the Adriatic, and Italy ; and on the west, by 
Switzerland and Bavaria. With the exception of the 
north-east frontier, the boundaries are of a strong 



1 The Leitha is a tributary of the Danube, flowing northwards, but it 
only marks the boundary between the Austrian and the Hungarian 
lands for quite a short distance. 



DIVERSE RACES 3 

natural character, and, as a whole, the Empire forms 
a fairly compact mass. 

The population, though inferior in density to those 
of Great Britain and France, reached in 1895 a grand 
total of 44,448,474 souls. The inhabitants of the 
Cisleithan lands number nearly twenty-five millions, 
those of the Transleithan lands over eighteen millions, 
and those of Bosnia and Herzegovina about one and 
a half millions. This population is of the most 
diverse description ; in fact, next to the Russian 
Empire, the Austrian-Hungarian dominions contain a 
greater variety of peoples than any other country in 
Europe. Fully one half of the entire population 
is of Slavonian extraction ; then there are nearly 
eleven millions of Germans, seven and a half millions 
of Magyars, and three millions of Rumanians ; to 
whom must be added about two millions of Jews 
and two hundred thousand foreign residents, chiefly 
Germans and Italians, but including also nearly four 
thousand British and American subjects. 

The distribution of these various elements over the 
Empire is very important from a political point of 
view. They are very different, one from the other, in 
respect of manners, language, religion, and customs, 
have opposing interests and independent systems of 
government, and are practically foreign to one another 
except for the community of the Imperial control. 
The resulting phenomenon is physical weakness as a 
whole, together with a difficulty to combine as one 
nation when threatened by foreign Powers. 

Slavs are found all over the Empire, and include 
Czechs, Slovaks, Poles, Ruthenes, Slovenes, Croatians, 



4 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

Servians, and Bulgarians. The Czechs and Slovaks 
occupy the greater part of Hungary, Bohemia, and 
Moravia, and parts of Galicia and Bukowina ; the 
Poles and Ruthenes form the bulk of the population 
in Galicia ; and Slovenes, Croatians, Servians, and 
Bulgarians are found in considerable numbers in 
Croatia, Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina, and Tran- 
sylvania. The German element again prevails in 
parts of Bohemia and Moravia, Silesia, Upper and 
Lower Austria, part of Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, 
part of the Tyrol, Vorarlberg, and parts of Hungary, 
Transylvania, Bukowina, and Galicia. The Magyars 
form the balk of the population of Hungary and, 
its southern portion, Transylvania. And lastly, with 
reference to the Rumanian element, we find Italians in 
the Tyrol and Coast Land, Rhaeto-Romanes, Friules 
and Ladmes in Carniola, the Coast Land, the Tyrol, 
and Carinthia ; and Rumanians (or Wallachians) in 
Transylvania. In truth, a multitude of tribes ! 

Besides being notable from an ethnographic point 
of view, the Austrian -Hungarian Empire is exceed- 
ingly interesting in its physical features. About one- 
fourth of its territories might be described as High- 
land or Alpine, but even in the most mountainous 
districts there are so many fruitful valleys that only 
about a tenth part remains uncultivated. Every kind 
of soil is to be found, and the Austrian provinces are 
on the average as fertile as those of England or 
France. They are well watered, too, by the Danube 
and its tributaries, and, though they occupy so central 
a position in Europe, there is ready access by water 
to the outside world both over the former river and 



AUSTRIAN SCENERY 5 

the Elbe, and also from the ports on the Adriatic. 
The general result is that, for variety of scenery, this 
Empire is unsurpassed, some parts, such as Salzburg 
and its neighbourhood, being simply enchanting. A 
well-known writer has remarked : " The variety of the 
scenery, the verdure of the meadows and trees, the 
depth of the valleys and the altitudes of the moun- 
tains, the clearness and grandeur of the rivers and 
lakes give it (Austria), I think, a decided superiority 
over Switzerland." 

Austria is undoubtedly a beautiful country. Fore- 
most among its beauties stand its mountains and 
rocks ; indeed, the motto which is to be read on the 
bust of Sigismund von Schrattenbach at the Monchs- 
berg of Salzburg, " Te saxa loquuntur" might well be 
applied to Austria as a whole. We have sublimely 
the grand in the snow-clad chain of the Salzburg and 
Styrian Alps, the picturesque in the weird dolomite 
columns of the Tyrol, and the beautiful in the valleys 
and dales with which the heights are interspersed. 
All degrees of temperature, too, can be experienced, 
from the icy cold of Greenland to the mild balmy air 
of Italy, and it must be his own fault if the inhabitant 
does not find the locality there to suit his con- 
stitutional predilections. The man who is fond of 
life can indulge in the gayest of experiences in 
Austria's beautiful capital Vienna, with its archi- 
tectural splendour, its " Prater," its islands, and its 
charming environs ; whilst one of a more romantic 
turn can enjoy himself amid glaciers like those of the 
Grossglockner, passes like that of Lueg, lakes like 
the Hallstattersee, valleys like those of the Tyrol and 



6 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

the Danube, subterranean wonders like the cave of 
Adelsberg, or ancient remains like those of the 
Romans at Pola and Spalato, or of the feudal period 
at Riegersburg. On leaving scenes like these, one 
cannot help recalling to mind those lines of our poet 
Campbell — 

"Adieu, the woods and water's side, 
Imperial Danube's rich domain ! 
Adieu the grotto, wild and wide, 

The rocks abrupt, and grassy plain ! " 

The Austrian Alps are so extensive that to specify 
all their ramifications would be a fruitless task. 
Proceeding northwards, however, the chief summits 
are: the Orteler Spitze (the loftiest of all, being 
12,814 feet), Konigspitze, Stilfser and Wormser Joch 
in the Rhaetian Alps, Monte Antelao, Oetzthaler 
Waldspitz, Weisskugel, Sollstein, Grossglockner, 
Venediger, Wiesbachhorn, Schneeberg, Dachstein, 
Thorstein, and Burkenkogel. Of a lesser height are 
the several mountain ranges of Bohemia, Moravia, 
and Silesia, chief among which are the Bohmerwald 
(Kubani), the Fichtelgebirge, the Erzgebirge 
(Keilberg), the Riesengebirge and the Sudetes, none 
of which reach the snow line. Lastly, we have the 
Carpathians, starting about Pressburg on the 
Danube, making a gigantic curve round Hungary and 
Transylvania, and terminating near Orsova on the 
Lower Danube. The chief summits of this last 
range are Babia Gora, the Lomnitzer Spitze, Tatra, 
Pietrozza, Kuhhorn, and Negri. The population 
of these mountain heights is naturally sparse, but 
they abound in chamois, eagles, blackgame, &c 



LAKES AND RIVERS J 

The plains of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire are 
very extensive, covering nearly one-fifth of the whole 
superficies. The principal are the Great Hungarian 
Plain (1,700 square miles) ; the Little Hungarian 
Plain (160 square miles) ; the Plain of Lower 
Austria, on either side of the Danube ; the Welser 
Heath, in Upper Austria ; the Klagenfurter Plain, in 
Carinthia ; and the Galician Plain. 

The chief river is the Danube, flowing from the 
west towards the south-east. It has many tributaries, 
several of them navigable. Then there is the 
Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians and runs for 
a considerable part of its course through Austrian 
territory, the Weichsel, the Wisloka, the Sau, the 
Bug, the Oder, the Elbe (with several tributaries), the 
Po, and the Etsch. 

There are also numerous lakes, though mostly of 
small size. We may mention the Platten, Neu- 
siedler, Zirknitzer, Mond, Traun, Atter, Hallstatter, 
Zeller, Waller, Worthwaters, and also the Bodensee, 
the Weissensee, and the Ossiakh See. The Konigsee, 
with its water of deepest blue, almost black in the 
shadows of the forest-clad hills around, though just 
across the border, is a favourite excursion from 
Salzburg, and the other lakes mentioned partake 
largely of the same characteristics. 

Noteworthy are the mineral springs and mineral 
products of Austria, and the student of geology can 
find no happier hunting-ground. The tertiary forma- 
tion prevails, crystalline and unstratified rocks being 
chiefly met with in the west, and alluvial and igneous 
rocks in the east. A large part of Hungary must, 



8 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

undoubtedly, have been formed under water, as the 
quantities of fossil sea shells testify. The chalk of 
the Carpathians and the limestone of the western 
portion of the Empire must also have a subaqueous 
history ascribed to them. As for minerals, with the 
exception, perhaps, of platinum, all the useful metals 
are found. Thus we hear of gold, silver, iron, copper, 
lead, tin, antimony, arsenic, quicksilver, nickel, 
bismuth, manganese, &c. Coal occurs in almost every 
province, and of precious stones there are the 
Bohemian carbuncle, the Hungarian opal, chalcedony, 
emerald, ruby, jasper, topaz, amethyst, &c. 

Marble is very common, also salt, vitriol, alum, 
saltpetre, soda, &c. Salt is found, not as with us in 
masses, but in veins intermingled with material of a 
limestone nature. Mines for working such deposits 
are found in Styria, Salzburg, the Tyrol, and Tran- 
sylvania. But the mineral springs form the great 
distinguishing feature of the Empire. Of these there 
are at least fifteen hundred. Most occur in Bohemia 
and Hungary, but they are found all over. The most 
celebrated, perhaps, are those of Gastein, in Salzburg 
(frequented by the reigning Emperor) ; Karlsbad (with 
its seven powerful springs), Marienbad, Franzenbrunn, 
Sedlitz, and Teplitz, in Bohemia ; and Bartfeld and 
Ofen, in Hungary. 

With respect to natural products, the forests ought 
first to be mentioned, these occupying as much as 
one-third of the whole producing area. One half of 
the forest land is in Hungary. In the more remote 
forests trees have been known to attain huge dimen- 
sions, especially larches, firs, and Siberian pines. The 






. . 




IO THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

oak, ash, beech, and elm also flourish, and, besides the 
fig, olive, almond, orange, lemon, and pomegranate, 
all our more usual fruit trees are grown. There are 
many vineyards, especially in the south, and the 
Austrian-Hungarian Empire ranks for its wines im- 
mediately after France, Italy, and Spain, though, 
owing to its inland position, they are not so well 
known as they deserve to be. All our agricultural 
crops are sown, also rice and maize, and among other 
productions are potatoes, turnips, beet, beans, peas, 
tobacco, hemp, flax, and hops. 

Among the animals of the country are wild deer, 
chamois, wild swine, lynxes, foxes, and a species of 
bear. Chamois hunting in the treibjagd style is a 
favourite amusement, and the peasants will often 
collect in number and drive forty or fifty of these 
animals towards a ring of sportsmen, who shoot them 
as they come up. There is a native type of horse of 
small size, and most of our domestic animals are 
to be seen, ducks and geese being plentiful. Wild 
birds are more plentiful here than in any other 
European country, among them being bustards, wild 
geese and ducks, blackcock, grouse, widgeon, &c. 
Blackcock are specially abundant in the Alpine 
districts, and the Styrian Jager's hat with the feathers 
of this bird is almost national. 

In the matter of industries the Austrian-Hungarian 
Empire has made great progress in recent times. All 
the metals above mentioned are manufactured into 
goods ; so also are linen, cotton, wool, and silk. In 
Bohemia, too, the manufacture of glass and porcelain 
is carried out with special skill. There are a great 



ROADS AND RAILWAYS II 

many brandy distilleries in the Empire, and there 
are also some tobacco manufactories, the latter being 
practically monopolised by the Government. Ship- 
building is carried on extensively on the Coast Land 
and Dalmatia, and the forestry and salt industries 
also employ large numbers, of the population. The 
last mentioned are carried on in ways peculiar to the 
country. As there are not always streams convenient 
to float the timber along, the inhabitants construct, as 
it were, railways (riesen) of smooth fir-tree trunks down 
which they slide the logs as they are hewn to some 
suitable stream, these railways being sometimes of 
extraordinary length. So, too, the native system of 
salt mining is often peculiar ; pits being sunk into the 
limestone beds containing the salt, a mountain stream 
being introduced thereto, the water of which dissolves 
the materials, and after a time becomes saturated with 
the salt, and the brine being finally run off and treated 
by boiling. 

Roads are fairly good, and the construction of 
railways proceeds apace. The years 1816-25 are 
notable for the laying down of the most elevated 
roads in Europe, those of the pass of Stelvio and the 
Stilserjoch, these being intended both to serve for 
military purposes and to improve the commercial 
communication with Italy. Of railways there were, 
in 1893, 3 2 > 221 kilometres open, and more under 
construction. Inland communication by means of 
canals has also largely advanced. Lastly, the postal 
and telegraph systems are equal to those of any other 
European country. 

The present constitution of the Austrian-Hungarian 



12 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

Empire may be said to date from June 8, 1867, 
when the Emperor Francis Joseph I. of Austria 
(succeeded December 2, 1848) was crowned Apos- 
tolic King of Hungary at Ofen. Since that time 
there have been to all intents and purposes two 
monarchies, a Germanic one and a Hungarian one, 
each division having its own parliament, ministers, 
and administration, and being mutually related only 
through the Imperial head and the common army, 
navy, and financial, diplomatic, postal, and telegraphic 
services. The Germanic or Austrian Parliament is 
called the Reichsrath, or Council of the Realm, and 
consists of two houses, an upper, or Herrenhaus, 
of 245 members, composed of 21 princes of the 
Imperial family, 68 hereditary nobles, 17 archbishops 
and bishops, and 139 other members selected by the 
Emperor on the ground of distinction ; and a lower, or 
Abgeordneten-liaus, of 425 members elected, for the 
most part, by the popular vote of the seventeen pro- 
vinces of Austria. Lower Austria is represented by 46 
members, Upper Austria by 20, Salzburg by 6, Styria 
by 27, Carinthia by 10, Carniola by 11, Trieste by 5, 
Gorz and Gradisca by 5, Istria by 5, the Tyrol by 21, 
Vorarlberg by 4, Bohemia by no, Moravia by 43, 
Silesia by 12, Galicia by 78, Bukowina by 11, and 
Dalmatia by 11. Politically speaking, the con- 
stitution of the latter house of representatives is very 
important, and, as showing the number and diversity 
of the elements composing it, we may mention that at 
the General Election of 1891 there were returned no 
German Liberals, 16 National Germans, 15 Anti- 
Semites, 57 Poles, 8 Ruthenians, 36 Young Czechs, 



PARLIAMENTARY IXSTITUTIOXS I 3 

10 Old Czechs, 3 Independent Czechs, 8 Left Centres, 
31 Clericals, 23 Slavonians and Serbo Croats, 18 
Bohemian Feudal Conservatives, 5 of the Moravian 
Central party, 9 Italians, 2 Rumanians, and 2 German 
Conservatives ; while at the General Election of 1896 
still more diverse elements were returned. The 
Abgeordneten-Jiaus endures for six years and members 
are paid ten florins for each day's attendance, besides 
an allowance for travelling expenses. The elective 
franchise is now a fairly popular one. Before 1896 
the Lower House consisted of 353 members, but, by 
the Parliamentary Reform Bill passed in that year, 
72 additional members were added to be elected by 
all male adults in the Realm, other than domestic 
servants, resident for six months in the same house. 
Five and a-half million new electors received the 
franchise by that Act. In Hungary there are also 
two houses, the Upper, or Magnatentafd, and the 
Lower, or Repraesentantentafel. The Crown in the 
case of both divisions is hereditary in the Habsburg- 
Lothringen dynasty, passing by right of primogeniture 
to males first, whom failing to females. The monarch 
must, however, be a member of the Roman Catholic 
Church. In the matters above mentioned, which are 
common to the two monarchies, the Emperor is 
assisted by ministers representing the different depart- 
ments and two annually elected bodies called 
Delegationeu, which meet at Vienna and Buda-Pesth 
alternately, and are comprised of 60 members each, 
one-third being sent by the upper houses and two- 
thirds by the lower houses. There are also provincial 
diets for the administration of local affairs composed 



14 THE EMPIRE AT THE PRESENT DAY 

of representatives of the ecclesiastical, university, 
landowning, citizen, commercial, and rural classes who 
hold office for six years, and communal councils to 
regulate parish matters, which, speaking generally, sit 
for three years. 

In the matter of religion there is full liberty of con- 
science, but Roman Catholicism is the State system 
of worship. Next in importance comes the Greek 
Church, and Calvinists and Lutherans are also a pretty 
numerous body. Then there are Jews, and in Bosnia 
and Herzegovina Mohammedans. 

Education is very widespread, and the Government 
of Austria has paid earnest attention to its promotion. 
There are in Austria eight Universities — at Vienna, 
Prague (2), Graz, Cracow, Lemberg, Innsbruck, and 
Czernowitz ; and in Hungary three — at Buda-Pesth, 
Klausenburg, and Agram. Then there are gymnasia 
or preparatory schools for the Universities (176 in 
Austria), realschulen or preparatory schools for tech- 
nical education (76 in Austria), over 2000 technical 
schools and special institutes for such subjects 
as mining, agriculture, art, &c, and lastly, the ele- 
mentary or national schools, attendance at which 
is compulsory on every child of the age of six 
years. 

Justice is administered by (1) the Supreme Court 
of Justice and Court of Cassation in Vienna (Oberste 
Gerichte and Kassations hof); (2) the Higher Provincial 
Courts, or Oberlandesgerichte (Courts of Appeal) ; 
(3) the Provincial and District Courts (Landes una 
Kreisgerichte), to which may be added the Jury Courts 
(Geschworenengerichte); and (4) the County Courts 



LAW COURTS 



15 



(Bezirksgerichte). The last two classes are courts of 
first instance. 

Such then are the leading features at the present 
day of the Austrian-Hungarian Empire as a whole. 
Let it be our task now to lay before our readers the 
story of how this advanced and notable position has 
been won, so far as the Austrian portion of that 
Empire is concerned. 




II 

EARLY INHABITANTS 

LITTLE that is definite is known about the inhabi- 
tants of the territories which comprise the present 
Austrian Empire prior to the Christian era. There 
are traces of Keltic antiquity in the names of many 
districts, rivers, mountains, towns, &c, of these ter- 
ritories which seem to prove that the latter were in 
pre-historical times in the possession of tribes of that 
great and numerous people, the Kelts, who afterwards 
spread westward over Gaul and the British Isles. 
There is even reason for believing that the mining 
industry in Austria dates back to their time; certain 
it is that under the Romans iron, steel, and salt were 
all worked there. The Romans called the natives, 
with whom they first came in contact there, Gauls; 
and, through Roman sources as well as by discoveries 
made in more recent times in France and Switzer- 
land, we know a good deal about their personal 
characteristics. They were rude in their ways but 
brave in the extreme, and must have possessed some 
amount of civilisation. Their religion was in the 
hands of Druids, and seems to have been largely of a 




AUSTRIAN'S OF THE BRONZE AGE. 



1 8 EARLY INHABITANTS 

sacrificial nature. Unlike the Teutons, however, they 
are said to have shown little chivalry to women, a 
characteristic that to some extent exists among the 
Slavs of the present day. 

There were several branches of these Kelts or 
Gauls of Central Europe. One powerful branch was 
that of the Boii. The Romans speak of a people of 
this name inhabiting in Gallia Lugduensis what is 
now the Bourbonnais, Departement de l'Allier, but 
the same, or at all events a similarly named, people 
seem also to have dwelt in the district now com- 
prised by Bavaria, Bohemia, Moravia, and North- 
west Hungary. Bohemia indeed is Bojohaemum, 
the country of the Boii. Part of this people also 
migrated to Upper Italy, occupying the district now 
known as Parma and Modena. Their ramifications, 
therefore, were very extensive. We are also told of 
a people called the Taurisci or dwellers of the i 
heights (Keltic taur, a mountain), who seem to be 
identical with the later Norici, and who inhabited the 
valleys of the Salza, Traun, Enns, Mur and Drau in 
Carinthia. The immanes Rhaeti, as Horace * calls 
them, and the Vindelici, who inhabited the Tyrol 
and part of present-day Bavaria respectively, were 
according to some authorities also of Keltic origin, 
though this cannot be regarded as established. More 
certainly Keltic were the Ambidravii or Scordisci, 
who dwelt between the Danube and the Save in what 
then was Pannonia, and corresponds fairly well with 
modern Hungary south of the Danube ; the Brenni, 

1 Odes 4, 14, 15. The best translation of immanes here would 
appear to be "horrible." 



THE CIMBRI AND JEUTONES 1 9 

whose name survives in the Brenner Pass and the 
town of Brunecken ; the Genauni, whose name is 
thought to be traced in the Val di Non, half way 
between Trent and Botzen, and the Ombroni in the 
Carpathian part of Silesia. 

Passing beyond Pannonia, however, we find in 
what now is Galicia a people called Sarmatians, who 
came from the country between the Weichsel and the 
Don, and from whom the Black Sea received the 
name of Mare Sarmaticam, and in modern Buko- 
wina and Transylvania a fierce race called Dacians, 
who in Julius Caesar's time were exceedingly powerful 
under their ruler Byrebistes or Boerebistes. Lastly, 
descending towards the Adriatic, we find the great 
Illyrian people in modern Croatia, Dalmatia, and 
Albania, those in Croatia being termed Liburnians. 
As for the Coast Land, that too was probably Illy- 
rian, but it early became an integral part of the 
Roman Empire under the name of Istria, and nume- 
rous are the Roman remains there ; Spalato (then 
Salona) being made a great Roman naval station 
after the struggle of a century and a half with the 
fierce Illyrian sea pirates. 

But besides these peoples who were more or less 
connected with the soil, we find mention made of 
others who came from a greater distance. Particu- 
larly important in this connection are the Cimbri and 
Teutones who disappear from Roman history as 
suddenly as they made their appearance. These, as 
the name of the second indicates, were of German 
extraction, and their place of origin is generally 
placed as far north as Jutland. About 102 B.C., 



20 EARLY INHABITANTS 

however, they made an incursion southwards, over- 
coming all obstacles until they reached the Eastern 
Alps. Here the Romans under Marius met them, 
and a bloody battle was fought 101 B.C. at the Campi 
Raudii, which ended in the complete defeat of these 
northern invaders. To their bravery the Roman 
writers bear sufficient witness, for we are told that 
after the defeat their women rushed with axes and 
even bare hands upon the victors, and allowed them- 
selves to be slaughtered rather than to fall into the 
hands of their opponents. This incursion seems 
specially important as showing that even in these 
early times there must have been a considerable 
intermingling of races going on. 

As the Romans extended their conquests, we find 
other tribes mentioned as coming into prominence, 
only again to fall like those just mentioned into 
oblivion the most profound. It is undoubtedly a 
remarkable historical feature, this sudden apparent 
bloom and decline of these peoples. The explana- 
tion of it is to be found partly no doubt in the 
Romanising of their territories and in the more 
enlarged knowledge of them possessed by their con- 
querors, but chiefly in all probability in the constant 
incursions of other outside tribes who weakened and 
absorbed the former ones. Be this as it may, by the 
beginning of the Christian era we find the Romans in 
possession of all the territory south of the Danube, 
and the countries of the Taurisci, Scordisci, and other 
peoples before mentioned replaced by the rich and 
important provinces of Noricum and Pannonia. 

The most important campaigns undertaken by the 



THE MARCOMANN1 21 

Romans in those parts, subsequently to that of Marius 
against the Cimbri and Teutones, were those of Julius 
Caesar against Ariovistus, of Octavianus in Pan- 
nonia and Dalmatia, and of Drusus and Tiberius in 
the Eastern Alps. Julius Caesar's campaign is im- 
portant, because among the Germanic tribes led by 
Ariovistus and driven back with him across the 
Rhine was that of the Marcomanni, marchmen or 
borderers (marca=a. march, border) who subsequently 
broke the power of the Boii in Bohemia, and esta- 
blished a powerful kingdom there. These Marco- 
manni were closely related to or according to some a 
tribe of the Suevi, also mentioned by Caesar, who 
seem to have been a mixed German and Slavonic 
people settled in what now is Baden. To the Siievi 
we shall have to revert again. It may be mentioned 
here, however, that according to Pliny they and the 
Hermanduri, Chatti, and Cherusci were all tribes 
of a great Germanic people, the Hermiones, who 
occupied the central parts of Europe. The result 
of the campaigns of Drusus and Tiberius (12-9 
B.C.) was the complete subjection to the Romans 
of the Tyrol and whole district of the Eastern Alps. 
Drusus operated from the south, Tiberius from Gaul 
and the Lake of Constance, and both penetrated the 
valleys of the Rhine and Inn in every direction so 
completely that, as Merivale puts it, " at the conclu- 
sion of a brilliant and rapid campaign the two 
brothers had effected the complete subjugation of the 
country of the Grisons and the Tyrol." This author 
also adds : " The free tribes of the Eastern Alps 
appear then for the first time in history only to 



22 EARLY INHABITANTS 

disappear again for a thousand years." The " Apo- 
theosis of Augustus " in the Museum of Antiquities 
at Vienna represents the triumph celebrated in 
honour of Tiberius' success. The same leader sub- 
sequently added Pannonia to the Roman Empire. 
Among the prisoners captured by Drusus and taken 
to Rome was Hermann, or Arminius, afterwards chief 
of the Cherusci. In Rome he learned the arts of his 
conquerors as well as their weak points, and having 
after a time returned to his native people, he was 
able to train them so well that when next he came 
into conflict with the Romans under Varus in the 
Teutoburger forest in A.D. 9 he completely defeated 
them. When Augustus heard of this terrible disaster, 
he is said to have exclaimed : " O Varus, Varus, give 
me back my legions ! " Five years afterwards the 
Romans under Germanicus had again to suffer defeat 
at the hands of the Cherusci, but treachery did what 
the might of the south failed to accomplish, and Ar- 
minius fell by the hands of relatives at the early age 
of thirty-seven. Then this people who had over- 
come both the Marcomanni and the Romans them- 
selves suffered defeat at the hands of the Chatti or 
Hessians. Lastly, in the early years of the Christian 
era Dalmatia, Liburnia, and the western part of what 
is now Bosnia and Herzegovina were subdued, and 
the district converted into a Roman province. The 
subjection of the Dacians of Transylvania was not 
accomplished till about a hundred years later by 
Trajan, whose pillar in Rome still stands in comme- 
moration of the event. 

We thus see that at the end of the first century of 



THE ROMANS IN AUSTRIA 2$ 

our era, practically the whole of the present Austrian- 
Hungarian Empire was an integral portion of the 
Roman dominions. Soon the whole district became 
completely Romanised. Even in those times the 
country was famous for its forests and mines, and its 
grain production was very large. With the Romans, 
too, came a higher state of culture and a more settled 
life, towns such as Noricum Juvavum (Salzburg), 
Augusta Vindelicorum (Augsburg), Lentia (Linz), 
Celeia (Cilli), Vindobona (Vienna), &c, were founded, 
and commerce generally flourished. The natives 
gave up their ancient nomadic habits, the only re- 
maining traces of which seem to be discoverable in 
the scarcity of hedges and definite boundaries among 
the South Germans as compared with those in the 
north, and even the language of Rome became to a 
great extent that of the country. The establishment 
of new municipia and colonics gave the subject race 
the benefit of fine roads, amphitheatres, fora, baths, 
&c, and the liberal system of law (jus gentium) 
administered by the praetors put the weak on an 
equal footing with the strong. Some of the Roman 
Emperors — for example, Claudius II., Probus and 
Valentinian I. — were actually Pannonian by birth. 

For a time all seems to have gone well. About 
the end of the second century, however, the Mar- 
comanni again became very troublesome ; in fact, 
they appear to have devasted almost the whole of 
the province of Pannonia. From this time forward 
the Roman power in these regions gradually waned. 
Allied with the Marcomanni in these incursions were 
the Quadi (Celtic, col, cold or coad, a wood) and Suevi 



24 EARLY INHABITANTS 

(Swabians), the former of whom came from Bohemia 
and Northern Hungary between Mons Gabretta 
{B dinner Wald) and the Danube, while the latter 
seem to have been located in Moravia and Silesia. 
For two centuries we read of constant incursions by 
these tribes, as well as by the Alemanni and Bur- 
gundians, but by the end of the fourth century they 
have completely disappeared. At the time we speak 
of they must have been very powerful, for the 
Romans had repeatedly to purchase peace and make 
concessions. Thus Aurelianus and Probus withdrew 
the Roman legions from Dacia and Pannonia Inferior, 
leaving them a prey to the Goths, and Commodus 
had to purchase peace of the Germanic confederation 
led by the Marcomanni. The Allemanni, too, actually 
succeeded in penetrating into Italy as far as Milan, 
but were defeated there by Gallienus — a kind of 
Cadmean victory, apparently, for it was followed by 
the Emperor marrying Pipa, daughter of the chief of 
the Suevi, and giving Pannonia to his father-in-law 
as the price of peace. 




Ill 



FROM THE ATPEARANCE OF THE GOTHS TO THE 
REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE 

WHO the Goths exactly were and whence they came 
has never been decisively established. Historically 
they make their appearance contemporaneously with 
the Franks, both these peoples being from the middle 
of the third century a constant terror and menace to 
the Roman Empire. In the year 250 the Emperor 
Decius found himself face to face with the Goths on 
the Danube, and twenty years later Dacia was 
entirely abandoned before their inroads. Once 
established there, their attacks became more and 
more frequent, and decisive defeats of the Romans 
in the field were henceforth by no means of rare 
occurrence. Meanwhile to the west similar attacks 
were made by the Franks, Alemanni, and Saxons on 
the Roman province of Noricum and in the regions 
of the Eastern Alps. The Quadi and Sarmatians 
also are mentioned as combining in making incur- 
sions into Roman territory, and another people, the 
Heruli, seem to have joined the Goths as allies in 
their devastations. Certain it is that this latter people 

25 



26 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

were in 451 with Attila, and in 476 with the other 
Germanic tribes who captured Rome and established 
a kingdom in Italy under the rule of Odoacer. The 
Heruli also had a kingdom in Central Hungary, so 
that they must have been a very powerful people. 
Lastly, we must not at this point omit to mention 
the Vandals, who, like the Alemanni, seem to have 
been of Germanic extraction, and who first entered 
Dacia and Pannonia, but subsequently moved west- 
wards through Bavaria into Western France and 
Spain. 

It must not be supposed that with the settlement 
of the barbarian tribes in the Roman provinces, all 
culture and civilisation died out. On the contrary, 
though physically superior to the subject races, these 
savage victors seem to have succumbed very readily 
to Roman ways. Take, for instance, the matter of 
religion. Early in the fourth century (325 A.D.) 
Constantine the Great had at the celebrated council 
of Nicaea proclaimed Christianity to be the state 
religion of the whole Roman Empire. Now what do 
we find soon afterwards in the provinces captured by 
these Germanic tribes ? Why, that the very first 
book ever written in any Teutonic language was a 
translation of the Bible. No doubt among the Roman 
soldiery on the borders of the Empire there must have 
been many Christians, and perhaps even in those 
days militant missionaries had taken it upon them- 
selves to go among these Eastern barbarians, but the 
fact above mentioned undoubtedly seems to indicate 
that the invaders were not so utterly uncultured as to 
be unable to appreciate the blessings of a civilised 




GERMAN RACE IN AUSTRIA. 
(Third and fourth centuries.) 



28 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

life. The translation in question is that of Ulfilas, the 
son of a Christian mother belonging to Cappadocia 
by a Gothic father, who was learned in Latin and 
Greek, represented his people as ambassador to the 
Court of Constantine, there became acquainted with 
Eusebius, the Bishop of the Eastern Church, and got 
himself finally consecrated as Bishop of the Goths. 
His version of the Gospels, in silver letters on purple 
ground, is still preserved in the library of Upsala in 
Sweden. 

The next event with which we have to deal is the 
appearance of the Huns or Calmucks. These were 
undoubtedly Asiatic in origin and seem to have 
inhabited originally the great Siberian plains between 
Russia and China. They did not live in houses but 
were nomadic in their habits and lived with their 
horses, which were practically their sole possession, in 
tents. They are described as being short, stout-set 
individuals, with well-developed muscles and able to 
endure any amount of exposure and fatigue. They 
ate roots and raw meat, and so savage looking 
and uncouth were they, that even the rude Goths 
believed them to have originated in the realms of hell. 
In the year 375 they crossed the Volga and spread 
westwards along the Black Sea and up the valley of 
the Danube, driving all before them. The Goths at 
this time were composed of two divisions, the 
Ostrogoths, whose settlements were between the 
Danube and the Carpathian range, and the Visigoths, 
who inhabited Southern Russia between the Don and 
the Dniester. Both these divisions, unable to resist 
their Asiatic foes, sought safety in the Roman 



IXCURSIOXS BY ATTILA 2Q 

dominions, settling in Thrace and Moesia, as well as 
other parts to the west of their former domains, but 
the inroads of the Huns still continuing, the Ostro- 
goths entered Italy in 408 under Alaric, retiring 
temporarily on receiving a heavy ransom, but return- 
ing again two years later and sacking Rome, while 
the Visigoths pushed farther westwards and settled 
in Spain and the South of France. 

The Huns now spread over Dacia and Pannonia, 
occupying the fertile plains of these countries, which 
perhaps reminded them of their native Asiatic steppes. 
The district they named after themselves. There for 
a time they appear to have remained content, but 
about the middle of the fifth century arose Attila, the 
Scourge of God, the hero of the Niebelungen Lied 
(Etzel), who murdered his own brother that he might 
combine the Huns under his undivided leadership. 
In 451 Attila started from his camp of Buda, 
marched westwards, " scourged " the districts through 
which he passed, crossed the Rhine at Strassburg and 
actually penetrated as far as Orleans. Here he found 
Aetius, " the last of the Romans," with a large army, 
and recognising the superior might of the latter, 
retired. Aetius came up with him, however, at 
Chalons on the Marne and completely defeated him. 
Finding his advance to the west was stayed, in 452 
Attila proceeded southwards into Italy, driving the 
Veneti out of Padua and Verona towards the islands 
of the Adriatic, but was again constrained to retreat. 
In the following year he died suddenly of apoplexy 
while taking part in a huge feast. 

Two other powerful races have now to be 



30 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

mentioned — the Gepidae and the Longobardi. The 
Gepidae probably came from the borders of the 
Baltic, but like other Germanic tribes they migrated 
southwards. First they joined the Vandals, then the 
Goths ; when, being subdued by the Huns, they 
formed part of the forces led by Attila, regaining 
their independence, however, after the latter's death. 
They then became masters of the district east of the 
Danube, but were compelled by the Roman Emperor 
Justinian to receive among themselves the Longo- 
bardi, who do not appear to have lived long at peace 
with them, for we are told of a great conflict in the 
year 566 between these rival races on the Danube, in 
which the Gepidse were utterly defeated, and after 
which they became merged in the dominant popula- 
tion. The Longobardi (longbeards) were also a 
Germanic race, perhaps a branch of the Suevi. They 
are mentioned as early as the time of Augustus as 
having assisted the Cherusci in annihilating Varus' 
legions. They seem after that to have lived for a con- 
siderable period at peace with their neighbours, but 
in the beginning of the fifth century they took a fresh 
stock of vitality and suddenly appeared in Hungary 
and the neighbouring regions north of the Danube. 
Subsequently, as we have seen, they absorbed the 
Gepidae and still later they advanced south to the 
Valley of the Po, and founded there the kingdom of 
Lombardy. This was in 567. 

The story of Alboin^ the leader of the Longobardi 
on this last expedition, is an interesting one. He had 
in early life suffered much at the hands of the 
Byzantine Emperor Justin II., and consequently bore 



ALBOIN 3 1 

towards the Roman Empire no good will. It is said 
that the Empress Sophia insulted him by sending 
him spinning materials with the message that he 
might as well undertake the work of women since 
he was unfit to wage war like a man, whereupon he 
told the messenger : " Go and tell your mistress that I 
will spin a thread, the end of which her fingers shall 
be unable to find." As a matter of fact he was far 
from womanlike in spirit. From the King of the 
Gepidse he sought the hand of his daughter Rosa- 
mond in marriage, and it was to gain this end that 
the ferocious war was undertaken which ended in the 
practical annihilation of that people. Having after 
the manner of those times converted the skull of his 
wished-for father-in-law into a drinking cup, he duly 
took the daughter as his wife. This same drinking 
cup, however, was also the cause of his ruin. In 573 
he chanced to indulge in a wild orgie near Verona, 
and losing command of himself, actually compelled 
his queen to drink out of this same cup — her father's 
skull. No wonder, then, that, resolved upon revenge, 
she became traitor to her lord and compassed his 
death by the hands of assassins. 

In 568, active movement on the part of the native 
Germanic races may be said to have ceased. Trouble, 
however, was still destined to fall on the districts 
wherein they had settled from outside peoples, in 
particular from the Avars and Slavs. The Slavs 
undoubtedly originated in Russia, but they are not 
mentioned by any writer before the sixth century. 
At that time they apparently occupied the plains 
between the Black Sea and the Danube ; but they soon 



32 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

left these, and, crossing the Carpathians, caused the 
Rumanians especially to suffer much at their hands. 
The Avars, like the Huns, were nomads from the 
Central Asian steppes who followed closely after the 
Slavs, pressed them westwards from the Caspian Sea, 
overran the whole of Slav land north of the Carpathians 
as far as Bohemia, held Gepidae, Slavs, and Bulgarians 
in subjection, and established themselves as dominant 
possessors of the country. In 563, under Chakan 
Bajan, they actually invaded the kingdom of the 
Franks. Henceforth the names of Noricum and 
Pannonia disappear from history. Christianity and 
civilisation, too, suffered a severe reverse, being for a 
time almost rooted out, and in place of the district of 
Noricum we find a new one established called Caran- 
tania, comprising modern Styria, Carinthia, and the 
Tyrol. The Avars held their ground in these regions 
for two centuries and a half, but at the end of the 
eighth century they were subdued by the Franks 
under Charlemagne, and a hundred years later the 
Magyars entered the eastern portion of their terri- 
tories and founded the present Hungarian kingdom. 
Meanwhile the Western Roman Empire was ex- 
tinguished in the Germanic kingdom of Odoacer, a 
German chief, under the control of which Italy was 
for some three hundred years, while in the city of 
Rome the Popes gradually added to their great 
spiritual influence a very extensive temporal power. 
Let us now turn to the kingdom of the Franks, 
which by this time had assumed a settled form under 
the Merovingian dynasty. The policy of the Frankish 
rulers was the same that had proved so successful in 



ATTACKS BY THE AVARS 33 

the case of the Romans, namely, that of allowing 
each subject tribe to enjoy its own laws and customs 
so far as was compatible with the unity of the king- 
dom as a whole. When, accordingly, first the 
Alemanni and then the Bavarians fell under the 
power of the Franks, these Germanic tribes enjoyed 
the utmost liberty, in fact were to all intents and 
purposes autonomous under the rule of the Mero- 
vingian sovereigns. Bavaria in those days extended 
farther to the east than it does now, and included a 
considerable portion of the present Austrian territories. 
At the period of which we are speaking, it was governed 
by Garibald I. as vassal to the Frankish kingdom. 
This monarch from motives either of patriotism or of 
ambition tried to shake off the Merovingian yoke. 
He was accordingly deposed by Childebert II. and 
replaced as Duke of Bavaria by Tassilo I. It was 
under the latter's rule that the encroachments of the 
Avars and Slavs on the western provinces became 
serious. Tassilo was kept constantly engaged by 
them, though with but indifferent success, victory 
at one time inclining to one side, at another to the 
other. Garibald II., son of Tassilo, however, was 
completely defeated by these eastern tribes in 609 at 
Aguntum (Lienz), but, having formed a league with 
the Alemanni, succeeded with their assistance in 
driving the Avars back in 631. That was during the 
reign of Dagobert I. Then the Slavs under Samo 
turned against both Germans and Avars, and com- 
pletely overran their territories. Samo was King of 
the Slavs from 627 to 662. First he freed the 
Bohemian and Carantanian Slavs from the yoke of 

4 



34 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

the Avars, then in 630 he waged war with the Franks, 
who accused his people of having murdered certain 
Frankish merchants in Bohemia, on which occasion 
after a three days' battle at Wogastisburg (probably 
Weissenburg or Wossburg) nearly the entire Frankish 
army was cut in pieces, and finally in 639 the Servians 
and Croats left their settlement north of the Car- 
pathians, and passing through Hungary, wrested Dal- 
matia and the surrounding districts from the Avars. 
After Samo, however, we hear no more of the 
Bohemian Slavs until the reign of Charlemagne. 

In the reign of Childebert III. (695-711), the great 
spread of Christianity in Bavaria was a feature of 
importance. At this period Theodo was Duke. The 
moving spirit was Rupert, Bishop of Worms, who 
visited Bavaria, and in Regensburg baptized not only 
the Duke but also many nobles and commoners of 
the people. Soon churches were built and priests 
ordained to them, that at Wallersee in honour of Saint 
Peter being richly endowed by Theodo himself. 
Next, Bishop Rupert proceeded to Juvavus (Salzach), 
then little more than a paltry remnant of the old 
Roman town Juvavia, and here was built and con- 
secrated another church, also in honour of St. Peter, as 
well as a monastery — the oldest in Austria. "Faviana, 
antiquum et omnibus majus monasterium juxta muros 
oppidi Faviani" is the description of it given by the 
chronicler Eugipius. The result was that a most 
flourishing Christian colony arose here which ulti- 
mately developed into the town of Salzburg, the seat 
of culture and learning, and the ecclesiastical centre 
of Bavaria, Austria, Styria. Carinthia and Hungary. 



BAVARIA AND THE TYROL 35 

Other smaller monastic institutions were also soon 
afterwards founded in other parts. Rupert's successor 
in this field was Emmeran, Bishop of Poitiers, who 
came to the Court of Theodo at Regensburg with the 
intention of going on to Hungary to convert the 
Avars. Theodo, however, kept him in Bavaria, saying 
that charity should begin at home, and that there 
was still a large number of unconverted heathen in 
his realm. 

Theodo was succeeded as Duke of Bavaria by his 
son Theodobert, who died in the year 724, and was 
in turn succeeded by his son Hugbert. Little is 
known, unfortunately, about the political events which 
occurred during this time in Bavaria ; indeed, historically 
speaking, there is not much further information about 
events in that country until the time of Charles 
Martel or the " Hammer," the last of the so-called 
" Mayors of the Palace." It was probably about this 
period, however, that the Tyrol was wrested from 
Bavarian control. 

It might have been thought that Tyrol, the hardy, 
patriotic, honest, religious and romantic, the country 
of myths and folk-lore, the happy hunting ground of 
the wilder Jdger and the Norgs, 1 would have been 
safe from the troubles attending worldly ambitions. 
It was not so. Tyrol, too, like the rest of Austria, had 
to undergo its trials at the hands of Teutons, Romans, 



1 Norgs, South Tyrol spirits. The word is probably identical with 
Norici, the old inhabitants of the district. Now they are beings to be 

shunned : — 

" Schliess die Kammer fein, 
Sonst kommt der Norg herein." 



36 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

and Bavarians. Now it was to become subject to 
the Longobardi. The story goes that Theodobert 
gave his only daughter Guntruda in marriage to 
Luitbrand, son of the Longobard king, whereafter the 
latter, devoid of all sense of duty, established himself 
by force in his father-in-law's estates, so that the 
latter was well entitled to exclaim with Tacitus : 
" Caveat sibi princeps a vicinis." 

After Hugbert came, in 735, Odilo, whose origin is 
uncertain. It was while Odilo was Duke that the 
Anglo-Saxon Benedictine monk Winfried or Boniface, 
as he was subsequently termed, went over from 
Southampton in England to Germany, and thence 
paid three visits to Rome, with the result that in 723 
Pope Gregory II. made him a bishop, and deputed 
him as Papal legate to Charles Martel. His was not 
so much a missionary enterprise, however, as a political 
one, the Pope's object being to seek to bring the 
Frankish bishop more completely into subjection to 
the Roman see, and so to raise the Pope of Rome to 
the position of sole and supreme head of the Church. 
The Pope accordingly did all he could to enlist 
Charles Martel in his favour, at the same time giving 
his legate the utmost authority that it was in his 
power to confer. Thus his epistle was addressed not 
to Charles Martel as head of the Merovingians, but 
" glorioso filio Carolo," and a portion of it is in these 
terms : " Fecimus ei manum nostrum roborutum dure, ut 
ubicunque ubi et ubi umbidure videtur, cum nostro amore 
et sub nostro mundebundio et defensione quietus et con- 
servutus esse debeut." Thus armed, Boniface returned 
to the district of Hesse, baptizing there the heathen 



VI RG I LI US 37 

by thousanos, and afterwards to Bavaria, doing good 
work wherever he went. Among his great deeds was 
the division of Bavaria into four bishoprics, namely, 
those of Salzburg, Freisingen, Regensburg, and Passau. 
Another important act was the founding of the 
monastery of Fulda in the lonely waste of Buchonia, 
whence, as a writer has remarked, the rays of moral 
and religious culture streamed equally to all sides 
embracing Hessians, Franks, Bavarians and Thurin- 
gians. In recognition of his services, Gregory III., 
who meanwhile had become Pope, made him Arch- 
bishop of Germany. 

We are also told of a certain Irishman, Virgilius 
by name, who became in 745 head of the Salzburg 
Church. 1 Before going to Odilo he had been among 
the Christian community at Iona in the west of 
Scotland. He seems to have been learned in advance 
of his time, for he taught that the earth was round, 
and he was so liberal-minded as even to acknowledge 
that among heretics there were men as intellectual as 
the true believers. Virgilius, however, had been at 
the Frankish Court of Pepin, son of Charles Martel, 
and had become tainted with Frankish ideas ; ac- 
cordingly he aroused the enmity of Boniface, whose 
hostility became ultimately so pronounced that he 
induced Pope Zacharias to deprive his opponent of 
his post. 

Odilo, like his predecessors, was Bavarian to the 
backbone, and desired alike political and spiritual 
separation of his country from the Frankish rule. 

1 " Virgilius vir quidem sapiens et bene doctus de Hibernia insula 
venit." 



38 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

Even the fact that he had married Pepin's sister, 
Hildetrud, did not deter him from attacking the 
Frankish monarch in 743. Pepin, nevertheless, was 
equal to the occasion, and effectually defeated his 
brother-in-law at a battle on the Lech, taking him 
prisoner and carrying him off to France. In 744, 
Odilo recovered again both his liberty and his duke- 
dom, though no longer as vassal but simply as 
administrator, for Pepin took the opportunity of 
making Bavaria an integral portion of his dominions, 
saying God had pronounced judgment to this effect 
upon the country at the battle of the Lech. It also 
appears that Odilo, on the supplication of the Caran- 
tanians who were hard pressed by the Avars, entered 
into a campaign against the latter people, and not 
only beat them back but added Carantania to the 
Bavarian territories. He died 748, and was succeeded 
by Tassilo II. 

Tassilo was only twenty years of age when he took 
the reins of power. Young as he was he was fired 
with the desire to liberate Bavaria from the Frankish 
yoke. Pepin, on the other hand, sought to bring 
about a closer ecclesiastical and political connection, 
and with that in view limited the Duke's authority 
in various ways, besides imposing some of the 
Frankish laws upon the Bavarians. Tassilo, mean- 
while, devoted himself in earnest to the promotion of 
the welfare of his people and restored them to their 
former glory by marrying Luitberga, daughter of the 
Longobard king, Desiderius, and regaining with her 
the provinces that had been lost in 724, including 
Botzen, Seben, Tyrol, and Mais. This was in j66 




AUSTRIAN'S BEGINNING OF CHRISTIAN ERA. 



40 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

or 768, in the latter of which years Pepin's death 
occurred. Twenty years afterwards Tassilo entered 
into friendly negotiations with the Avars. All his 
efforts to enhance the dignity of his realm were, 
however, destined to be of no avail. In 768 Charle- 
magne ascended the Frankish throne, and at once 
initiated that enterprising military career of his, at 
the conclusion of which we find him established as 
monarch of Germany, Belgium, France, Switzerland, 
Northern Italy, and Spain. In the space of forty-five 
years he conducted fifty-three expeditions against 
Saxons, Frisians, Longobardi, Bavarians, Avars, Slavs, 
and Danes. By the year 772 he had already taken 
from the Saxons their fortress of Eresburg, as well 
as defeated them on many battlefields. In 774 he 
subverted the kingdom of the Longobardi, notwith- 
standing that Desiderius' daughter, Desiderata (Irmin- 
garde), was his wife, the Longobard king being quite 
unable to resist him. One writer remarks : " For 
every priest that Desiderius had, Charles had a 
bishop ; for every monk that the former had, the 
latter had an abbot ; for every foot-soldier that the 
former had, the latter had a duke and counts ; and 
for every single man that Desiderius could put in 
the field, Charles could put thirty." Still the Longo- 
bardi acquitted themselves in fight so well that several 
times Charlemagne thought the battle was lost ; in 
the end, however, his superiority gained the day. 
From its bloody nature the scene of this struggle 
was called Mortaria (Mortara), that is, the Field of 
the Dead. Verona fell into the hands of the Franks 
without much resistance, but Pavia, into which Desi- 



SIEGE OF PA VI A 4 1 

derius had retired, held out long and bravely, only- 
falling at last by treachery, when it had suffered 
terribly from hunger and disease. One story narrates 
how Desiderius' daughter had taken a fancy to the 
iron warrior, and having written a letter in which she 
expressed her willingness, if Charles would marry 
her, to deliver up the town, shot it into the Frankish 
lines. The answer being of an encouraging nature, 
this lovesick maiden stole the key of the city when 
her father was asleep, opened the gates to the Franks 
and sprang forward to embrace Charlemagne. In the 
melee which ensued, however, she is said to have fallen 
under the horses' feet and been trodden to death. 
Through admiration probably, of his brave defence, 
Charlemagne spared Desiderius' life, 1 contenting him- 
self with sending him to a monastery, where he received 
the tonsure. Not quietly, however, did the Longobardi 
submit to the conqueror, and several attempts to re- 
gain their freedom were made. One led by Hrodgand 
of Friaul in 776 caused Charlemagne to cross the 
Alps with the rapidity of lightning, and ended in 
disaster for the Longobardi, their leader being slain 
and Friaul being converted into a margravate. Soon 
afterwards, in 781, Charlemagne placed the govern- 
ment of Lombardy in the hands of his son Pepin, who 
went to Rome, and was there anointed King of Italy. 
Now it was Bavaria's turn. In an evil moment 
Tassilo refused to acknowledge Charlemagne's autho- 
rity and set about stirring up the Avars to invade the 
Frankish dominions. Accordingly, in 787, a cam- 

1 " Misericordia motus supra eum, noluit eum occidere (rex)," says 
the Chronicle. 



42 FROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

paign was undertaken against Bavaria, Charlemagne 
attacking it from the west, Pepin from the south. 
The Bavarians themselves, angry with Tassilo for 
being the cause of this trouble, and also for nego- 
tiating with the Avars, whom they hated as deadly 
foes, brought an accusation of treason against him, and 
unanimously sentenced him to death (788). Charle- 
magne generously commuted this sentence to confine- 
ment in the monastery of St. Goar, his wife Luitberga, 
son Theodo, and two daughters suffering the same 
fate. After Tassilo's deposition Bavaria became an 
integral part of the Frankish realms, Count Geroldt 
being appointed over it as military ruler. Further, 
contemporaneously with Bavaria's downfall, Croatia, 
Istria, and Dalmatia also became part of Charle- 
magne's dominions, but details are lacking. 

Next, attention was directed to the Avars or Huns. 
The first army entered the country of this people in 
788, but seems to have soon retired. A second 
expedition followed, however, in 789, in the course of 
which a great battle was fought near the river Ibosa 
(Ips), in which the Frankish-Bavarian army, under 
Grahaman and Audaker, was victorious. A third 
army defeated the Avars on the Danube. In 790 
ensued the greatest Avar war, Charlemagne himself 
leading one force from Regensburg, while Pepin 
advanced from the south, and a third force, under 
Count Theodoric, started from Thuringia and Saxony 
and passed through Bohemia. When Charlemagne 
reached the Enns he ordered a halt for three days, 
during which his men spent the time praying and 
chanting litanies, at the expiration of which interval 



SUBMISSION OF THE AVARS 43 

he crossed the river and pressed on, getting as far 
as the Raab. x Pepin apparently on this occasion 
advanced to the river Drave. Finally all halted for 
a time, then retired, Charlemagne going back to 
Regensburg. In 792 Charlemagne was unable to 
prosecute the war with the Avars, being too busy 
elsewhere, for the Bohemian Slavs had broken loose 
and devastated Bavarian Noricum and East Frank- 
land. The result was disastrous for the Bohemians, 
not only grown-up men were slain without mercy, 
but even boys were put to the sword. At the same 
time the Avars began to submit voluntarily, one of 
their chiefs, Tudun, despatching ambassadors, who 
expressed his willingness to become a vassal to 
Charlemagne and to embrace Christianity. The 
Frankish king did not, however, wait for the other 
chiefs to come in, but in 795 crossed the Danube in 
conjunction with Zvonimir, ruler of the Pannonian 
Chorvates, and penetrated to the seat of the Avar 
monarchs. In the result, as we are told, " all the 
money and treasure accumulated during long years 
fell into the hands of the Franks, and in no cam- 
paign did they ever obtain so much booty as in this 
one, so that whereas hitherto they had been poor, 
now they found in the royal castle of the Avars such 
a mass of gold and silver, and acquired such valuable 
booty, that the Franks could well lay claim that they 
had taken from the Avars what in earlier times these 
had plundered and taken from other peoples." A 
large gift out of this booty was given to Pope 
Adrian I. and the Romish Church, but so great was 

1 " Rex — usque ad Arrabonis fluenta venisset." 



44 I' ROM THE GOTHS TO CHARLEMAGNE 

the glut of money that ensued after its distribution 
in the Frankish dominions that prices are said to 
have gone up there a full third for the next ten years. 
Tudun himself visited Aix la Chapelle and in that 
town not only swore fidelity to Charlemagne, but was 
baptized into the Christian Church. Once again, in 
pursuance of his efforts to bring about the subjection 
of the Avars, Pepin at the king's command invaded 
their country during the summer of 796 at the head of 
Italian, Bavarian, and Alemannian troops, overcame 
all opposition and drove his opponents beyond the 
Theiss. 1 What was left of the Avar treasures he 
took back with him. In 803 the Avar power was 
finally shattered, this people then becoming merged 
in and identified with the Slavs, Bulgarians, and 
Franks. So complete was their annihilation that the 
Slavs said of them : " God has rooted them out 
because of their pride ; all have died and not an Avar 
is left surviving." Whence, too, the Russian proverb, 
" They have gone to destruction like the Avars ! " 

Charlemagne's dominions were now extended from 
the Enns to the junction of the Drave with the 
Danube, and, therefore, included the whole of 
present-day Austria just as previously when it was 
a part of the Roman Empire it had been compact. 
With this extension also his ambition became ful- 
filled to have his domains immediately adjacent to 
those of Byzantium. What the inhabitants of the 
Byzantine Empire thought of the honour may be 
judged from the Greek proverb, " Have the Franks 
as friends, but not as Neighbours." 

1 " Hunis trans Tizam fugatis." 



IV 



FROM THE REIGN OF CHARLEMAGNE TO THE 
DEATH OF' HENRY II. OF SAXONY 



WITH the formation of his huge empire, Charle- 
magne became what he had aimed at — first Roman 
Emperor of German nationality, the successor of the 
Caesars, the anointed of God and supreme monarch 
of the Christian world. The remainder of his life 
was devoted to securing his dominions against 
foreign foes. With this object in view he constituted 
the different portions into kingdoms, duchies and 
counties. Most important was his institution of 
frontier districts, or marches, as they were called, 
over which he set march graves or margraves (grcnz 
grafen). Among others, the country between the 
Enns and the Raab, that is, modern Austria proper, 
became the East March, the nucleus of the subsequent 
East Realm {OcstcrreicJi). The whole of this district 
was given to Geroldt, the military ruler of Bavaria, 
while the district comprising South Carantania, 
Carinthia, Istria, &c, was entrusted to Erich of 
Friaul. These faithful servants of Charlemagne 
did not exercise their authority long, for both met 

45 



46 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF HENRY II. 

an early death in the fulfilment of their duties. 
Geroldt died on September I, 799, when leading on 
his troops in battle with the Avars who had risen in 
revolt — his body being conveyed to the monastery of 
Reichenau, while Erich fell in the course of his siege 
of the Liburnian rocky fortress Tersatica (Tarsat, 
near Fiume), the news that "the conqueror of the 
Avars, the donor of churches, the father of the poor, 
is no more ! " throwing Aquileja into the utmost 
consternation. To these succeeded in Bavaria, Count 
Audulf, and on the Adriatic, Count Kadolach, or 
Kadolaus, or Kocilin, for the name is thus variously 
spelt. 

The remaining events of importance in the 
Austrian district during Charlemagne's long reign 
were in 805, the war with the Bohemian Slavs, in 
806 that with the Servians, and in 809 that with the 
Doges of Venice. With regard to the first of these, 
Bohemia was attacked from three sides, but the 
inhabitants took refuge in the mountains, and from 
the heights harassed the invaders, who only remained 
some forty days, and had to depart without accom- 
plishing their purpose. At last, on the 28th of 
January, 814, Charlemagne died in the seventy-first 
year of his life and forty-seventh of his reign. " No 
words," says the Chronicle, " can express the lamen- 
tation and sorrow that arose over his death ; even by 
the heathen he was mourned as the father of the 
world." He was buried at Aix-la-Chapelle in the 
Church of the Virgin Mary, where his body was 
embalmed and placed in a tomb in a sitting posture 
on a golden chair, with a sword of gold girt to his 



DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE 47 

body and a golden volume of the Gospels on his 
knees, a gold chain round his neck, and on his head 
a crown containing a piece of the wood of the cross 
of Christ 

Charlemagne's successor was his son Louis, sur- 
named the Pious. He was in more respects than one 
the contrary of his father ; the latter had been firm 
and steadfast of purpose, the former was far too mild. 
As his surname indicates he was exceedingly re- 
ligious, spent many an hour on his knees in prayer 
and tears, and used to dispense alms personally to the 
poor. The result was that advantage was taken of 
his weakness, and his reign of twenty-six years was 
full of disaster. The very first generous act that he 
did, namely, the division of his realm among his 
three sons, Lothair, Louis, and Pepin, was destined 
to bear bad fruit. Lothair the eldest was made 
Emperor elect, while Louis and Pepin were put over 
Bavaria and Aquitania respectively as vassal mon- 
archs, all three being subject to Louis the Pious as 
supreme head. We shall shortly see how this act, 
intended to promote peace among the brothers, 
completely failed in accomplishing its purpose. 
About this time too, Liudevit, King of the Pannonian 
Chorvates, headed a revolt of the Southern Slavs, 
Carantanians, Carinthians, and Dalmatians, who had 
suffered much from Kadolach, Margrave of Friaul. 
This movement was, however, soon suppressed, 
and Liudevit himself had to take refuge in Dalmatia, 
wherein 823 he met with a violent death. The whole 
district was thus brought more closely under Frankish 
rule. Trouble also came from the east on the part 



48 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF HENRY II. 

of the Bulgarians, who, under Omortag for some 
years harassed and devastated much of the neigh- 
bouring portions of the Frankish realms. These 
Louis was unable to combat owing to internal 
dissensions. He had by a second marriage, entered 
into in 819, a son named Charles, and accordingly 
now wished to redivide his realm so as to include the 
latter. This the elder sons resented, and so father and 
sons found themselves for the next eight years ranged 
against one another in enmity. Pepin, however, 
died in 838, whereupon a new division was made, 
whereby Louis the German was to retain Bavaria, 
and Lothair Italy, the remainder of the realm going 
to Charles, the youngest son. Upon this Louis at 
once took up arms against his father, but the latter 
drove him across the Thuringian frontier. Louis had 
to buy his way back to Bavaria through Bohemia. 
The jealousy and enmity of his sons, however, had 
broken the pious Louis's heart and he died at Mainz, 
June 20, 840. 

No sooner was Louis dead than war broke out 
between the brothers, and in 841 a great battle was 
fought at Fontenay (Fontenum) in Burgundy between 
Louis and Charles on the one side, and Lothair, who 
desired the whole kingdom, on the other. Lothair 
was completely defeated, and in the year 843 a treaty 
was made at Verdun by which Lothair received the 
Imperial crown and the Netherlands, the lands on the 
Rhine, Burgundy and Italy, the whole district being 
called Lotharingia (now diminished to Lothringen), 
Louis the German obtained the whole of Germany, 
and Charles the Bald got a ll France to the west of 



TROUBLE WITH MORAVIA 49 

Lothair's dominions. From this time Germany, 
including the southern marches, and Bohemia and 
Moravia became separate from the Frankish realm. 
In Bohemia and Moravia, however, frequent dis- 
satisfaction found expression among the Slav 
population at their German rulers, and many a 
German army had to repair to these countries to 
keep them in subjection. When Louis ascended the 
throne, Moimir was prince of Moravia, but he died 
and was succeeded in 846 by Rastislaw. The latter 
formed the idea of a complete separation from 
Germany and broke into open revolt in 855. Louis 
sent an army against him, but failed to take the 
hostile fortresses, and had to content himself with 
laying the country waste. On his retiral Rastislaw 
openly defied the German power, and in 856 Louis 
entrusted the control of his south-eastern territories 
to the most capable of his sons, Carlmann, but he for 
some reason or other seems to have supported Rastis- 
law against his father. The latter, however, took no 
steps against him and even received him at Regens- 
burg in 862, but the following year fresh evidence of 
his unfaithfulness having been forthcoming, Carlmann 
afraid of the consequences took up arms, but was 
betrayed by his allies and had to flee. Soon after, 
he was again received at his father's court, and in 869 
was sent with his brother Charles against the Mora- 
vian princes, who in conjunction with the Bohemians 
had then attained complete ecclesiastical and political 
separation from Germany. With arms they gained 
nothing, but what force was powerless to do, treachery 
accomplished. Rastislaw's nephew, Svatopluk, for 

5 



50 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF HENRY II. 

some reason turned against his uncle, and the latter, 
having fallen into his hands, was handed over in 
chains to Carlmann. Moravia was now without 
protection, and fell again into the hands of the 
Germans. Soon afterwards it became independent 
once more through the assistance of Svatopluk, 
who, become traitor in turn to his German friends, 
completely annihilated the Bavarian army. In 874 
peace was finally concluded at Forcheim, Louis 
recognising Svatopluk as a vassal king so long as 
he kept peace. Two years later, on 28th of August, 
876, Louis the German died. 

On Louis's death his sons divided the kingdom 
among themselves, Carlmann, the eldest, getting 
Bavaria, Pannonia and Carantania together with 
the suzerainty of Bohemia and Moravia, Louis III. 
getting East Frankland, Thuringia, Saxony and a 
portion of Lotharingia, and Charles the Fat (Carletto) 
getting Alamannia and some Lotharingian towns. 
Carlmann, unfortunately, died in 880, and his natural 
son Arnulf, to whom he had entrusted Carinthia and 
Pannonia, succeeded him. Arnulf was soon com- 
pelled to cede Bavaria to his uncle Louis, but the 
latter died in 882, and was succeeded by Charles the 
Fat. The latter also received the Frankish crown, so 
that with the exception of Burgundy he once more 
united together Charlemagne's great empire. Charles 
the Fat did not, however enjoy the honour long, for 
in 887 he was deposed and succeeded by Arnulf. 
This monarch assigned the East march to the care of 
Aribo, Upper Pannonia to Engelschalk, and Carinthia 
to Rudpert. He himself in 892 made a campaign in 



LOUIS THE CHILD 5 1 

Moravia where Svatopluk had refused to acknowledge 
him and laid the country waste during four whole 
weeks. The Magyars also were at this time very 
troublesome, and made annual invasions, plundering 
churches, burning towns and villages, and devasta- 
ting the country in general. Svatopluk died in 894, 
when a contest took place between his two sons, 
Moimir II. and Svatopluk II., in which Arnulf sided 
with the latter, and Aribo and Count Luitpold were 
sent with an army against Moimir. Again the 
country was laid waste, but on Aribo's return he was 
deposed and the East March and Carantania were 
handed over to Luitpold. Soon after, Arnulf died, 
survived by a son of seven years of age, Louis IV. 
(the child) who was crowned at Forchheim, on the 
2 1st of January, 900. 

Louis's reign was of short duration, for he died in 
911, bringing the race of Charlemagne in Germany 
to an end. The only event of importance to us was 
the invasion of Moravia by the Magyars or Hun- 
garians. The inhabitants of that country and the 
Germans, finding themselves face to face with a 
common foe, made a treaty in 901, and their forces 
succeeded in beating the Hungarians in that year 
in Carantania, and in 903 in Pannonia. But by 
905 we find the Moravian kingdom overthrown and 
thousands of the inhabitants carried off into slavery, 
and in 906 the Hungarians actually got as far as 
the Middle Elbe. This was soon followed by the 
Bohemian Slavs being rendered subject to the Czechs, 
and Moravia and Bohemia being joined together under 
Hungarian influence. Next year the German troops 



52 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF HENRY II. 

under Luitpold were almost annihilated by the Hun- 
garians at Pressburg, when an obstinate fight of three 
days' duration took place, and both Luitpold and the 
archbishop of Salzburg lost their lives. Now the 
Hungarians penetrated into Italy as far as Vesuvius, 
and into Germany to the west as far as the French 
border, and to the north as far as Bremen and 
Hamburg. Whether they also obtained possession of 
the East March has not been definitely established. 

On the extinction of the Carlovingian dynasty, 
Germany fell into the hands of the house of Saxony. 
On Duke Otto's proposal, however, the crown was 
offered to Conrad I. of France, vir per omnia 
mansuetus et prudens, we are told. He was opposed 
by Duke Arnulf of Bavaria, son of Luitpold, and the 
Empire was thus thrown into disorder, but he managed 
to hold his own until his death in 918. Duke Henry of 
Saxony was now called to the throne under the title 
of Henry I. (the Fowler). He began by winning 
over the Duke of Bavaria and so making peace in 
Germany. Then he turned his attention to the Slavs 
of the Elbe, and the Hungarians who were still always 
troublesome. The former he compelled to pay 
tribute, and from the latter he obtained a nine years' 
armistice by promising to pay them yearly a sum of 
money. The Bohemians also came under his sway, 
and paid tribute to him. Accordingly, by the time 
the armistice had expired he felt so strong, that when 
the Hungarians sent as usual for the accustomed 
money, their messengers returned empty-handed. 
Without delay the Hungarians broke into North 
Germany, but at Riade, near the modern Merseburg, 



OTTO THE GREAT 53 

they suffered a crushing defeat. Thirty-six thousand 
Hungarians were slain, and all their baggage fell into 
the hands of the Saxons. Soon afterwards, however, 
Henry was struck down with paralysis and died, a 
monarch of whom it has been said, " that Germany 
has rarely seen the like and never any one greater." 

Henrys successor on the throne was Otto I., the 
Great (936-973). During the early part of his reign 
he was forced to engage in a lengthy war with Duke 
Boleslaw I., of Bohemia, who had seceded from the 
Empire. In this war he was ultimately successful, and 
the latter submitted. Then in 937 on the death of 
Arnulf of Bavaria, his four sons declared their inde- 
pendence, and refused to take the oath of fealty, but 
in due course they also were reduced to subjection. 
Again a combination was entered into between the 
king's brothers, Thankmar, Eberhard, and Henry, but 
at a battle at Andernach in 939 Eberhard fell, and 
the others submitted. Otto next reduced the Slavs 
between the Elbe and the Oder, and finally, in 951, he 
crossed the Alps into Italy, where he assumed the 
title of King of the Lombards. But fresh disturb- 
ances excited in Germany against him by Liudolf of 
Swabia, Conrad of Lothringen, Frederick, Archbishop 
of Mainz, Arnulf of Bavaria, and other princes, 
necessitated his speedy return. His opponents fled 
to Mainz and there defied him, and as he found 
all the provinces in insurrection against him, he was 
compelled to retire into Saxony. Here he made 
careful preparations for another campaign, and his 
forces being further increased by defections from his 
enemies, he succeeded in reducing them in 954. Next 



54 FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO DEATH OF HENRY II. 

year, however, he was again engaged in struggles, 
this time with the Hungarians, but at the battle of 
Lechfeld near Augsburg the invaders were almost 
entirely annihilated and their generals, Bulcsee and 
Lehel, taken prisoners and hanged at Regensburg. 
This finally put an end to the Hungarian incursions 
into German territory. 

According to some writers the birth of the Austrian 
kingdom was due to this battle on the Lech, and cer- 
tainly if before this time the district was subject to 
the Hungarians, it now again became German. After 
this event, we find the district called the " Ottonische 
mark," and it is undoubted that more German 
colonists settled there when the Hungarians were no 
longer to be dreaded. 

Otto the Great died May 7, 973, at Memleben, 
and was succeeded by his son Otto II. During 
the latter's short reign there were several outbreaks to 
be put down, particularly in Bavaria, where Duke 
Henry was contumacious. There was also a cam- 
paign against Boleslaw II. of Bohemia, which ended 
in this prince's submission. In 983, Otto II. died, 
leaving a son of three years of age, who was crowned 
at Aix la Chapelle under the title of Otto III. His 
reign also was short and full of trouble. Almost at 
the outset he fell into the hands of Henry of Bavaria, 
who aimed at nothing less than the throne itself, and 
indeed, got himself nominated king at Quedlinburg in 
984. Otto's friends, however, drove him into Bavaria, 
and thence he fled to Bohemia, where he was com- 
pelled to hand over the little king. At this time the 
Eastern March was in the hands of Leopold I., but 



THE EASTERN MARCH 55 

after his death in 994 his son Henry I. was appointed 
margrave of that district by Otto III. It is in 
Henry's time that we first find the designative name of 
Ostarrichi applied to the Eastern March. Henceforth 
it forms a distinct portion of the Empire, and no longer 
a dependency of the dukedom of Bavaria. In the 
year 1000 at Otto's instigation, Stephen I. (the Saint) 
was made king of the Hungarians by Pope Sylvester 
II., and to him is largely due the conversion of 
Hungary into a Christian European state. Otto him- 
self did not see this consummation, for he was attacked 
by fever in Italy and died 1002. 

With Otto III. expired the male line of Otto the 
Great, and he was succeeded by a son of his former 
opponent, Henry II. of Bavaria, who took the title of 
Henry II. (the Saint). The chief event of Henry's 
reign was the recovery of Bohemia as a portion of the 
Empire. With regard to Austria it would appear 
that the German colonists there showed bitter jealousy 
of all strangers entering their district, and it is even 
related that an Irish pilgrim called Coloman, though 
bound for Jerusalem, was murdered by the inhabi- 
tants of Stockerau. The Margrave of the district, 
Henry I., died in 1018, and was succeeded by his 
Brother Adalbert. Finally, with the death of the 
Emperor Henry II., in 1024, the Saxon line came to 
an end. 



V 

THE FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

The monarch who was chosen on the death of 
Henry II. was Conrad II., the first king of the Salic 
Franks. He had at an early period to contend with 
his own stepson, Ernest II. of Babenberg, who, how- 
ever, being deserted by his allies had to submit and 
was sent to the castle of Giebich in Saxony. It is inte- 
resting to note that Bishop Werner of Strassburg, the 
founder of the Austrian house of Habsburg, seems in 
this case to have sided with the Babenbergs. Conrad's 
great aim was to bring the duchies more immediately 
under his supreme control, and in order to accomplish 
this end he advocated the hereditary principle for the 
monarchy. Accordingly, only a few years after his 
own succession, he got his son, subsequently named 
Henry III., crowned as his successor. The Duke of 
Bavaria rose against the crown, but his duchy was 
declared forfeited and given to young Henry, who also 
obtained Swabia, where the ducal family had become 
extinct. The East March as far as the Vienna forest 
was in the hands of the Babenbergs, Leopold I. having 
been succeeded by his son Henry I., who in turn died 

56 



INVASION OF BOHEMIA 57 

childless in 1018 and was succeeded by Adalbert I. 
Carinthia about the same time became rulerless, 
and was given to Conrad's nephew. In Hungary at 
this period Stephen I., the Saint, was carrying out 
his civilising projects, and with such good results, that 
Conrad when he waged war with him failed to gain 
any success. In Bohemia Conrad was more fortunate, 
for Bretislav, " the Bohemian Achilles," an illegitimate 
son of the Duke of Bohemia, not only aided him 
against the Poles, but drove them out of Lusatia, and 
compelled their king to do homage to the German 
monarch. Both Lusatia and Bohemia then again 
became portions of the German Empire. But pro- 
bably the greatest event of this reign was the acquisi- 
tion of Burgundy, which was bequeathed to the 
monarchy by Rudolph III., whose niece was Conrad's 
queen. 

On the death of Conrad II., in 1039, his son at once 
assumed the reins of power, under the style of Henry 
III. Early in his reign Bretislav showed signs of 
breaking away from Germany, and this led to an in- 
vasion of Bohemia which was completely successful, 
the Duke having to appear before Henry at Regens- 
burg barefooted and in sackcloth. Being treated with 
generosity, however, he was restored to power, and 
continued down to his death to be a loyal vassal. In 
this campaign of Henry against Bretislav he received 
great assistance from Luitpold or Leopold, a son of 
the Margrave Adalbert of Austria, and at its conclu- 
sion this warrior was rewarded with costly gifts, inclu- 
ding the fine horse of the Bohemian duke. Equally 
successful was Henry in other parts. The Kings of 



58 FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

Poland and Denmark both acknowledged him as their 
feudal lord, and when war broke out with Hungary 
where Samuel, son-in-law of Stephen the Saint, was 
now king, he succeeded in reducing this country for 
the time being to the position of a fief of the German 
crown. But in 1052 he was compelled to appear 
once more at the head of an army in Hungary, this 
time being detained for months before the walls of 
Pressburg. Pope Leo IX. crossed the Alps specially 
to act as mediator, but in vain, and Henry had, owing 
to failure of provisions, finally to retire, only to find 
that there was a widespread conspiracy against him 
in Germany,' and that his influence was shaken. As 
has been said, this unfortunate siege of Pressburg was 
the " most noteworthy turning-point in the history of 
Henry III., as well as of the Imperial German throne." 
Henry III.'s successor was Henry IV. (1056-1106) 
who, as a mere child, thus found himself face to face 
with a strong rampart of feudalism. The infant monarch 
was left at first under the guardianship of his mother, 
the Empress Agnes, but Archbishop Anno of Cologne 
succeeded by stratagem in getting him into his hands, 
whereupon the Empress retired from the Regency. 
Henry was next transferred to Adalbert, Archbishop 
of Bremen, who again was far too indulgent. Neverthe- 
less, when he came of age, the young monarch threw 
overboard all his oppressors, and in so doing roused 
the Saxons against him who called in Pope Gregory 
VII. To him Henry thought it prudent to repair, but 
the Pope imperiously refused to see him until he should 
do penance. The result of this humiliation of their 
monarch, however, reunited his people with him, and 



END OF THE FRANCONIAN DYNASTY 59 

having marched into Italy he took Rome and deposed 
the Pope. Not much is known of events in the East 
March at this time, but we are told that in Henry's 
great battle with the Saxons in 1075, he lost a brave 
ally in the Margrave Ernest, who fell mortally 
wounded and was buried at Melk, the Austrian seat 
of the Babenbergs. In Henry V.'s reign (1106—25) 
the East March must have been closely allied to 
the German throne, for its margrave, Leopold IV., 
married Agnes, sister of the Emperor. Bohemia also 
was quiet in these reigns, Bretislav I. dying in 1055, 
and being succeeded in the duchy by his son Spitignev 
II. (died 1061), Bratislav II. (died 1092), Conrad (died 
1092), Bretislav II. (died 1 100), Borivoj II. (deposed 
1 107), and Bladislav I. (died 1 1 25). With Hungary 
Henry V. had to go to war in 1 108, but without result, 
the Poles being restive and distracting his forces. 
With the Poles, too, he had indifferent success. 
Borivoj II. had meanwhile been deposed from his 
duchy and taken refuge in Poland. Now (1109) he 
reappeared at Prague, and compelled Henry to turn 
his attention thither, with the result that Borivoj was 
captured and thrown into chains, though he was after- 
wards (in 1 1 16) released and allowed to live in the East 
March, where he died 11 24. Henry V. himself died 
the 22nd of May, 1125, and with him the Franconian 
dynasty came to an end. 

To Henry V. succeeded Lothair, Duke of Saxony, 
who excited the enmity of the Hohenstaufen princes, 
and then found himself for the next ten years engaged 
in a bitter internal struggle. Meanwhile in Bohemia 
Bladislav had been succeeded as Duke by Sobeslav I., 



60 FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

whom Vincent of Prague terms the " Father of his 
Fatherland"; but Otto II. of Olmiitz, feeling aggrieved, 
contested his succession with him, and a battle was 
fought, February 18, 1 126, near Kulm, in which the 
Germans were completely defeated. Otto was himself 
left dead on the battlefield, and Lothair had to come 
to terms with his opponent, recognising him as his 
chosen duke. But the great event of this period 
from our point of view was the elevation in 1 1 36 
of the East March with Styria and Carniola to the 
position of a duchy. Leopold IV., the margrave, 
died November 15 th of that year, and his son, 
Leopold V., was at once recognised by Lothair as 
successor. Leopold V.'s stepbrother was no other 
than Conrad III., who, on Lothair's death in 1136, 
was chosen German Emperor, the first of the Swabian 
Hohenstaufen dynasty. Early in the latter's reign, 
Duke Henry of Bavaria and Saxony rebelled and 
was deposed, when Saxony was given to Albrecht the 
Bear, and Bavaria to Leopold of the East March. 
On Leopold's death, in 1141, Bavaria and the Aus- 
trian territories were granted to his younger brother, 
Henry II., who is better known as Jasomirgott, a 
name given him from his habit of saying, " Ja, so mir 
Gott helfe ! " — a rough character and intractable. 
Conrad, however, died 1152, and the Empire fell 
into the hands of his nephew, Frederick Barbarossa 
(Rothbart). In a hasty moment the new Emperor 
promised to reinstate Henry the Lion, son of Henry 
the Proud, in Bavaria. Difficulties were presented 
by the dogged Jasomirgott, and ultimately he was 
only prevailed upon to part with Bavaria on terms 



VIENNA RISING INTO IMPORTANCE 6 1 

that the Eastern March should be detached from the 
duchy and converted into an independent duchy 
with special privileges. It was particularly declared 
that the new duchy should be conferred on Henry 
Jasomirgott as an indivisible and inalienable fief, on 
failure of male issue to go to the eldest daughter, 
and on failure of females to be disposable by will. 

Henry of Austria was, in his struggle for what he 
conceived to be his rights, assisted by Bladislav II., 
the then Duke of Bohemia, who even refused to send 
three hundred knights to take part in the Emperor's 
Italian campaign; but in 1 1 58 we find both these 
princes bravely assisting at the siege of Milan. 
Subsequently Bladislav led a force against Hungary, 
laying the country waste in every direction, and 
taking back with him a rich booty ; but he died 
1 1 74, and Henry Jasomirgott followed him three 
years later, 11 ~7, his death being due to a com- 
pound fracture of the leg, the result of a fall from 
his horse. It was in this Henry's time that Vienna 
seems first to have sprung into importance as a city. 
The old Roman fortress of Vindobona had now 
become greatly extended. The " castle " and the 
old Roman wall were in the twelfth century still in 
existence ; the present royal residence was then the 
Markgrafenburg ; and there were numerous streets 
in the neighbourhood, including the Bognergasse, 
Goldschmiedgasse, Ktifergasse, &c, where were many 
shops and manufactories. The market-place was 
already at that period surrounded by houses, and 
there were at least two churches, the Pfarr Church 
(now the Church of St. Rupert) and that of St. 



62 FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

Stephen. Henry himself resided in the Markgrafen- 
burg, making Vienna the seat of his government. 

Jasomirgott was succeeded as Duke of Austria by 
his son, Leopold VI. The latter, in 1182, undertook 
a pilgrimage to Palestine, whence he brought back a 
piece of the Cross about the size of a man's hand, 
which he placed in the monastery of the Holy Cross. 
Soon after, news came that Jerusalem was in the 
hands of Saladin, and in 1 1 89 Frederick Barbarossa, 
accompanied by many of his princes, undertook what 
is known as the Third Crusade. He had safely 
crossed the Dardanelles, and was traversing Asia 
Minor, when, in crossing the river Saleph, he was 
accidentally drowned. His body was conveyed to 
Antioch, where it was buried. When the news 
reached Germany the inhabitants would hardly 
believe it. To this day the country people say 
that Frederick Barbarossa is not dead, but sleeps on 
the Kyffhauser mountain in front of a stone table, 
through which his beard has grown, and many firmly 
believe that in the hour of Germany's peril he will 
come again and deliver the Fatherland ! 

Frederick Barbarossa was succeeded by his son, 
Henry VI., a cruel, hard man, who lacked his father's 
greatness of soul. He it was who took Richard of 
England prisoner, and, with the ransom obtained, 
levied the army which deluged a great part of Italy 
with blood. He too became so powerful in Germany 
that he was able to secure the election of his son 
Frederick, then an infant, as King of the Romans ; 
that is, German Emperor elect, and when he died, in 
1 197, he had almost succeeded in making the title to 



BATTLE OF L0DEN1TZ 63 

the Crown a hereditary one. Three years before this, 
Leopold VI. of Austria had already died in conse- 
quence of a fall from his horse and been buried at 
the monastery of the Holy Cross, since which time 
Frederick I., his elder son, had ruled Austria, and 
Leopold the younger Styria. Frederick, in 1195, 
joined another Crusade "to secure the safety of his 
father's soul," but died soon after his return on 
April 16, 1 198, being also buried at the monastery 
of the Holy Cross. 

In Bohemia meanwhile there had been great 
activity. Already in 1 179 Sobeslav II. had lost his 
dukedom at the hands of Leopold VI. of Austria, 
Conrad Otto of Znaim and Bladislav's son Frederick. 
He was driven out of the land, and died the following 
year. Thereupon Conrad Otto was made duke, but 
as Frederick had also been promised the duchy by 
the Emperor, the latter separated Moravia from 
Bohemia, giving the first to Conrad Otto and the 
second to Frederick. Nevertheless the matter was 
not to be so easily settled, and on December 10, 
1 1 84, there occurred a hot fight at Lodenitz, in 
which a dearly won victory fell to Frederick. 
Conrad Otto then renounced all claim to the duchy. 
Frederick, however, himself died a few years later, 
on March 25, 11 89, when Conrad Otto became duke. 
The claim upon Bohemia was still kept up by 
Premysl Otakar, who had been joined with Frederick 
at the battle of Lodenitz. When Henry VI. died 
and his brother Philip was set upon the throne by 
the supporters of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, their 
opponents straightway and on the same day ap- 



64 FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

pointed Otto IV. of Brunswick. Pope Innocent III. 
decided for the latter, and so gained for him a con- 
siderable following, and for some years there ensued 
a disastrous civil war, which would have gone hard 
with Otto but for the murder of Philip in 1208, when 
he ascended the Imperial throne. Otakar had origi- 
nally gone to the assistance of Philip and been 
acknowledged by him as King of Bohemia, but in 
1 20 1 he transferred his help to Otto, and so when the 
latter became established on the throne he continued 
to be recognised. Bohemia thus under him became 
raised to the rank of a kingdom. 

Otto IV. did not enjoy his power long. The Pope, 
resolved to punish him for casting aside his influence, 
and set up Frederick, the son of the late Emperor 
Henry VI., as Emperor. In 12 14 the latter crossed 
the Alps and was soon acknowledged, Otto, after 
the great battle of Bouvines, retiring into private life. 
At this time Leopold VII., brother of Frederick I., 
was Duke of Austria. He is chiefly known for the 
part which he took in the Fifth Crusade. He was a 
faithful follower of the new Emperor Frederick II., 
and upon his death in 1230 Frederick mourned his 
loss with all sincerity. The next Duke of Austria was 
the only surviving son of the last, Frederick II. ("the 
Warlike "). In Bohemia, too, King Premysl Otakar I. 
was dead. His son Wenzel, or Wenceslaus I., a boy 
of eleven years of age, was now ruler, and under 
him, in 1222, Moravia once more became part of 
the Bohemian kingdom. Between him and Andreas, 
King of Hungary, on the one side, and Frederick the 
Warlike of Austria on the other, war now broke out, 



DEATH OF FREDERICK THE WARLIKE. 65 

for which the pretext was Frederick's divorce of his 
second wife, Sophia, sister of Mary, the wife of Bela, 
of Hungary. This struggle lasted for many years, and 
in the course of it Austria was frequently invaded, 
the most noteworthy attack being that of 1236, when 
Vienna opened its gates to the combined Bavarian 
and Bohemian armies, and when Duke Frederick 
found himself deprived of most of his landed pos- 
sessions except Stahrenberg and Wiener Neustadt. 
Now, however, the Emperor himself appeared in 
Vienna with a brilliant throng, annexed that city 
as an immediate dependency of the Empire, and 
practically deprived Frederick the Warlike of nearly 
all his dominions. The latter, not disheartened, 
continued the struggle, and being now joined by 
some who had formerly opposed him, retook various 
strongholds, until by 1240 he had again acquired the 
whole district, including even Vienna. Peace was 
concluded with the Emperor on the latter quarrel- 
ling with King Wenzel : and when Frederick's niece 
Gertrude married Bladislav, Wenzel's son, enmity on 
that side also ceased. 

On the death of Frederick the Warlike in 1246, 
without issue and without a will, a dispute arose as to 
the succession. There were three claimants to the 
duchy— Margaret, widow of Henry VII., King of the 
Romans ; Constantia, wife of Henry the Illustrious, 
Margrave of Misnia ; and Frederick's niece Gertrude, 
the daughter-in-law of King Wenzel of Bohemia. 
Giving as his reason that none of the claimants was a 
daughter of the last duke, the Emperor Frederick II. 
sequestrated the estates and transferred the adminis- 

6 



66 FRANCONIAN AND HOHENSTAUFEN DYNASTIES 

tration of them to Otto, Count of Werdenberg, who 
straightway took over possession of them and made 
Vienna his head-quarters. Pope Innocent IV. was 
displeased at this, and instigated Wenzel to invade 
the country again in conjunction with Duke Otto of 
Bavaria, whose nephew Herman married Gertrude 
after the death of Bladislav (1247). The Emperor 
Frederick II. had in the meantime (1250) died, and 
his successor, Conrad IV., the last of the Hohen- 
staufens, was too busy with factions at home to 
attend much to affairs in the south-eastern part of 
his dominions. Accordingly, deprived of the assis- 
tance of the Imperial troops, the duchy of Austria 
readily fell a prey to Otto of Bavaria, who himself 
administered the country, Herman having died in 
1250. Now, however, Wenzel felt aggrieved, and, 
wishing to make his surviving son Otakar, or Ottocar, 
duke, he prevailed upon the states to accept him on 
condition that he would marry Margaret, widow of 
Henry VII. He, therefore, in due course invaded 
the district and expelled the Bavarians, thereupon 
taking possession of the entire duchy. Gertrude fled 
to Hungary, where Bela IV. was now king, and 
obtained the latter's active support. War then ensued 
between Hungary and Bohemia, in which Otakar, 
since 1253 become King (Otakar II.), was defeated 
and compelled to cede part of Styria to Bela's son 
Stephen ; but a rebellion soon broke out there, and 
Otakar succeeded in defeating Bela at Cressenbrun, 
and so made himself once more secure in the duchy. 
Next, in 1268, he purchased the right of succession 
to Carinthia and Carniola from Duke Ulrich, who 



THE GREAT INTERREGNUM. 6? 

was without issue, and soon after took possession of 
these districts. At this time, accordingly, he was a 
very powerful monarch, his domains extending from 
Bavaria to the Raab in Hungary, and from the shores 
of the Baltic to those of the Adriatic. 

After the death of Conrad IV., in 1254, and the 
extinction of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, there ensued 
what is usually called the Great Interregnum, during 
which the princes of Germany seem to have done 
pretty much what they pleased, and things got into 
such a state that at last Pope Gregory X. threatened 
that if the Electors did not choose a new Emperor, 
he himself would do so. Thus brought to the point, 
these dignitaries met, and duly elected Rudolph of 
Habsburg, who, although chosen because it was 
thought he would not assert himself unduly, soon 
showed that he was a man of determined character. 




GENEALOGICAL TABLE 

Showing the Relationship of the various Habsburg Monarchs 

Rudolph I. (rf 1.291). 



Albrecht I (rf. 1308) 



Rudolph id. 1290) 

I 
John fd. 1 313) 



Rudolph 

id '3°7>, 

King of Bohemu 



Frederick 
(rf. 1330). 



Leopold II. Albrecht II 

Id. 1326) (d 1358) 



Henry Otho 

(rf 1327) (rf. 1339) 



Austrian Line. 

Albrecht III. (rf. 1395). 1 

I I 

I Tyrol Line. 

Albrecht IV. {d 1404). Frederick IV. (rf 1439) 

I I 

Albrecht V (II.) (rf. 1439) Sigismund (rf.1496) 

iBohemia and Hungary). B > IV I 

I 
Ladislaus id 1457) 



Rudolph IV. id. 1365). Leopold III. (d. 1386). 



Styrtan Line. 
Lrnest [d. 1424) 



Frederick V. (III.) id. 1493). Albert VI. (rf. 1463). 
Maximilian I. id. 1519I. 
Philip id. 1506). 



Spanish Branch. 

Charles V, id. 1558), 

King of Spain. 

I ' 
Philip II. {d. 1598). 

Philip III. id. 1621). 

I 
Philip IV id. 1665). 

I 
Charles II. (rf 1700) 



German Branch. 
Ferdinand I. id. 1564). 



Maximilian II. 
id. 1576). 



Ferdinand 
id- '595)- 



Second Styrian Line. 
Charles id. 1 590). 



Ferdinand II 
id 16371. 

I 
Ferdinand III id 1657). 



Ferdir 



ml id I 



6541 



Leopold I id 1705) 



Second Tyrol Line 
Leopold id 1632) 

I 

Ferdinand Charles Sigismund Francis 
id. 1662) id 1665). 



Joseph I (rf 1711) Charles VI. (rf. 1740). 

Francis I. of Germany (rf. 1765I = Mana-Theresia (rf 1780). 



Joseph II. (rf 1790) 



Leopold II (rf 1792) 

Francis II (I. of Austna) |rf. 1835I. 
I 



Ferdinand I (rf 1875) 
iabdicaled 1848) 



iFrancis Charles, Archduke) 
Francis Joseph \h. 1830, ascended the throne 



VI 

RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

Rudolph, the military hero, to whom the House of 

Austria owes alike its origin and power, was the son 

of Albrecht IV., Count of Habsburg. The latter 

was unquestionably descended from Guntram the 

Rich, Count of Alsace and Brisgau, who lived in the 

tenth century, and his pedigree has been traced still 

further back, though with some uncertainty, to Etico, 

Duke of Alsace, who lived in the seventh century. 

The Habsburgs had considerable estates in Swabia,and 

in that part of Switzerland now called Aargau, where 

their hereditary castle stood on a height above Win- 

disch on the Aar. On the death, in 1232, of Rudolph 

I., these lands were divided between his two sons, 

Albrecht IV., Count of Habsburg and Landgrave of 

Alsace, getting Aargau and Alsace together with the 

castle of Habsburg, and Rudolph II. (The Silent), 

founder of the Lauffenburg line, getting Cleggow and 

the lands in the Brisgau and the counties of Rhein- 

felden and Lauffenburg. Albrecht IV. died in 1240, 

and left two sons, Rudolph and Albrecht, the former 

of whom became Count of Habsburg and King of 

69 



70 RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

the Romans, while the latter was Canon of Basle. 
Both were worthy sons of their father, whose advice 
to them had been to cultivate truth and piety, to 
give no ear to evil counsellors, to sacrifice their own 
personal advantage, and to avoid unnecessary wars, 
but' if dragged into strife to act with intrepidity and 
firmness, and place their chief reliance on celerity of 
movement. Rudolph, who was born in the year 1218, 
had passed his youth at the Court of Frederick II., 
and had there won renown for his strength and vigour, 
for he had been trained to wrestling and running, was 
skilled in horsemanship, and equalled by none in 
casting the javelin. Whence his ambition derived its 
impetus is uncertain ; no doubt he inherited it, like 
many others, by nature. When his father died all 
that he got was the landgravate of Upper Alsace, the 
burgravate of Rheinfelden, and, in conjunction with 
his brother, the county of Habsburg, besides some 
scattered territories in Swabia and Brisgau. He 
soon, however, showed that these, in his mind, were 
not extensive enough domains. 

Rudolph's first struggles were with his own rela- 
tives. His uncles, Rudolph (of Lauffenburg) and 
Hartman were each attacked in turn, and the money 
he got to purchase peace, especially from the latter, 
helped him much in his domestic establishment, which 
was of a very liberal order. Next we hear of him 
serving under Otakar, King of Bohemia, against the 
Brandenburgers and Huns. Then he aided the Bishop 
of Strassburg, but on the latter refusing to hand him 
over, in return for his services, a part of the ancient 
Habsburg domains, which had become ecclesiastical 



J 2 RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

property, he laid his hand on his sword and said to 
the Bishop : " While I am master of this weapon, 
neither you nor any other person shall wrest from me 
those dominions which I am to inherit by right of 
my mother, and since, contrary to every principle of 
justice, you grasp at the possessions of others, know 
that you shall shortly lose your own." Nor was his 
threat an idle one. He straightway sided with the 
inhabitants of Strassburg, who were engaged in hos- 
tilities with the Bishop, and who joyfully hailed him 
as a deliverer, took the field, surprised Colmar, stormed 
the strong fortress of Miihlhausen, and defeated the 
ecclesiastical forces with great slaughter. The result 
of this victory was to give Rudolph tremendous influ- 
ence and power in Alsace, Switzerland, and the district 
of the Lower Rhine, an influence and power that were 
all the greater owing to his strictness of discipline. 
He set about humbling the robber barons and evildoers 
who infested the country, and won a great reputation 
for his courage and impartiality. The lower classes 
of the people looked upon him as their saviour, and 
the mountaineers of Uri, Schwitz, and Unterwalden 
nominated him as their protector. 

Zurich it was, in particular, that directed his 
course to Austria. Its inhabitants were threatened 
by the Count of Regensburg, whose territories 
practically surrounded them. This noble had told 
them haughtily : " Your town is surrounded by my 
subjects as a fish in a net ; let the inhabitants 
surrender to me and T will govern them with mild- 
ness." Placed in such critical circumstances they 
had recourse to Rudolph, whom they made their 



RUDOLPH MADE KING OF THE ROMANS. 73 

prefect; and Rudolph, equal to the occasion, at once 
advanced against Regensburg. The vigour of his 
attack broke the enemies' lines, but in the course of 
the battle he was thrown from his horse, and was 
already being stripped by his adversaries of his 
armour, when a stout citizen of Zurich, Mtiller by 
name, rushed forward and carried him off to a 
place of safety. He then rallied his men and won 
a decisive victory. M tiller was afterwards loaded by 
him with the utmost favour. Proceeding on .his course, 
he captured the castles of Glanzenburg, Balder, and 
Utleberg, and so irresistible was his career that the 
barons, struck with dismay, exclaimed, " All opposi- 
tion is fruitless ! Rudolph is invincible ! " Shortly 
afterwards he besieged Basel, and it was while he was 
so engaged that he heard that the Electors of Germany 
had made him King of the Romans. No sooner did 
the besieged learn the news than they opened the 
gates to him, saying, " We have taken arms against 
Rudolph, Count of Habsburg, and not against the 
King of the Romans." It is also related that the 
Bishop, astonished at our hero's rapid success, ex- 
claimed, " Sede fortitcr, Domine Dens, vel locum 
Rudolf us occupabit tuuin ! " (Sit fast, Lord God, or ' 
Rudolph will occupy Thy throne.) 

Rudolph's election as King of the Romans took 
place for the following reasons. As is well known, 
Germany was in the Middle Ages the scene of much 
confusion and anarchy, the barons being uncurbed by 
any superior power, and indulging their rapacity by 
oppressing and robbing their weaker subject inhabi- 
tants. By 1273 matters had reached a crisis, and in 



74 RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

September of that year the electors, compelled by the 
Pope to choose a supreme head, resolved to offer the 
crown to Rudolph of Habsburg, then in his fifty-fifth 
year. In so deciding, however, they passed over two 
powerful claimants — Otakar, King of Bohemia, and 
Alphonso of Castille. The latter did not make any 
special move, but the former took the affair very 
ill and actually refused to acknowledge Rudolph. 
Now Otakar, as we have seen in our last chapter, was 
exceedingly powerful, and ruled Central Europe from 
Bavaria to the Raab in Hungary, and from the 
Adriatic to the shores of the Baltic. Accordingly, 
when the Diet, feeling insulted at his treating their 
ambassadors with contempt, declared him guilty of 
contumacy, and commanded him to restore the pro- 
vinces of Austria, Carinthia, and Carniola, he paid no 
heed to them and their new ruler, and in 1275 both 
sides prepared for war. 

Rudolph's first idea was to invade Otakar's 
dominions from three points, he himself attacking 
Bohemia, while his son penetrated into Austria, and 
Meinhard of Tyrol invaded Styria. Through misgiving 
as to his capacity to deal single-handed with Otakar's 
huge army, these plans were subsequently altered and a 
start was made by gaining over Henry of Bavaria from 
his Bohemian alliance, by giving his daughter Hedwig 
to Henry's son Otho in marriage. Thus he obtained 
an easy passage into Austria through Bavaria, by way 
of Regensburg and Passau, and was actually under the 
walls of Vienna before Otakar could get his troops in 
readiness for its defence. On his way Rudolph ac- 
quired by stratagem the impregnable fortress of Kloster 



RUDOLPH AT VIENNA. J$ 

Neuburg, and in many places he was received with 
acclamation by the inhabitants. Vienna held out for 
five weeks, but Rudolph formed a junction with 
Meinhard, who had marched through Styria and 
Carinthia, and at length reduced the place through 
starvation. Otakar's troops meanwhile were in a bad 
plight and had lost all spirit, and as the Hungarians 
also threatened him, the proud king was compelled to 
sue for peace. This was granted upon terms that he 
should renounce all claim to Austria, Styria, Carinthia, 
Carniola, and Windischmark, take the oath of alle- 
giance to the Empire and confine himself to Bohemia, 
Moravia, and the neighbouring provinces. This com- 
pact was further strengthened by the intermarriage 
of a son and daughter of Rudolph's with a daughter 
and son of Otakar's. 

Having thus acquired the Austrian provmces, 
Rudolph placed them under Louis of Bavaria. He 
even fixed his own residence at Vienna and gave 
to his sons, Albrecht, Hartman, and Rudolph, the 
ecclesiastical fiefs held by the Dukes of Austria. 

Meanwhile Otakar, smarting under his humiliation, 
had not been idle, and having again ccme to terms 
with Henry of Bavaria, and secured the neutrality of 
other German princes, he renewed the war. This time 
Rudolph was somewhat unprepared, as his Alsacian 
troops were away from the scene. Vienna was in a 
state of terror, but he declared it to be an imperial 
city and reanimated the inhabitants with his own 
spirit. Despite his inferiority in numbers he resolved 
to fight. On August 26, 1 278, accordingly, he advanced 
upon Weidendorf, near to which, on the borders be- 



y6 RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

tween Austria and Hungary, was the Marchfeld where 
Otakar lay encamped. The struggle that ensued was 
fierce in the extreme ; it was one for life. A number 
of the bravest of the Bohemians had formed the 
design to capture or slay Rudolph, but as they rushed 
forward he overthrew them one after the other, until 
at last a Thuringian giant named Valens managed to 
wound his horse and bring him to the ground. Fortune 
favoured him, however, and, rescued by one of his 
commanders, Rudolph was soon on another steed, 
encouraging his men, and ultimately he gained a com- 
plete victory. About 14,000 men are said to have 
fallen in this battle of the Marchfeld, Otakar himself 
being captured and slain by some Austrian and 
Styrian nobles whom he had injured. Pursuing his 
advantage, Rudolph penetrated into Moravia and 
Bohemia as far as Kolin. Here peace was concluded, 
Otakar's son, Wenzel, being made King of Bohemia 
as Wenzel II. He afterwards became affianced to 
Judith, daughter of Rudolph, whilst the latter's son 
also espoused the Bohemian Princess Agnes. This 
was in 1279. 

Having thus made his position secure, Rudolph 
directed his attention to the acquisition of the 
Austrian territories for his own family. With this 
object in view, he purchased out the Babenbergs 
and other claimants, got Henry of Bavaria to cede to 
him the district above the Ems, and did all he could to 
conciliate his new subjects. The Empire was further 
enlarged by the addition of Carinthia on the death of 
its Duke Philip. Gradually and by careful diplomacy 
he won over the Electors, and they at the Diet of 



EXTENSION OF RUDOLPH S POWER. J J 

Augsburg in 1282 formally conferred Austria, Styria, 
Carinthia, and Carniola on his two sons, Albrechtand 
Rudolph, as a joint inheritance. These seem to have 
imitated their father's method of ruling, and cleared 
the country of malefactors, protected merchants, and 
demolished the fortresses of the robber knights. On 
one occasion, too, Albrecht was called upon to expel 
the Hungarian counts of Guntz who had burst into 
Austria and got as far as Neustadt ; and after 
driving them out he entered Hungary and reduced 
Pressburg and twenty-seven other towns and fort- 
resses to submission. Carinthia was subsequently 
given to his faithful ally, Meinhard of Tyrol. 
Rudolph's remaining son, Hartman, had been drowned 
the year before when ^crossing the Rhine, near 
Rheinau, on his way to England, where he wished 
to marry Joanna, daughter of Edward III. It had 
been intended to confer upon him Swabia, Alsace, 
and Switzerland. 

Rudolph also tried to restore the Imperial power 
in Italy. In the Popes, however, especially Nicholas 
III., he found strong antagonists, and as the King of 
Naples as well was opposed to him, he deemed it 
advisable to confirm the transfer of Italy to the Papal 
See. No doubt his prudent foresight convinced him 
that so outlying a limb would only be a source of 
weakness to the Empire. As a matter of fact, he 
once remarked : " Rome is like the lion's den in the 
fable ; I discover the footsteps of those who went 
towards it, but none of those who return ! " 

In Germany he was just the ruler that was wanted. 
Law and order were now enforced with a strong hand. 



yS RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

He was called Lex Animata (living law). At Diets 
held at Ntirnberg and Mainz he got the Electors, 
Princes, and States to decide their differences in 
future by arbitration instead of war. Courts were 
established ; the office of Imperial judges (Hofrichters) 
revived. He is said to have condemned to death 
twenty-nine Thuringian nobles who had broken the 
peace, and in a single year he destroyed as many as 
seventy castles belonging to the robber barons. " Do 
not," he said on the occasion, " I beseech you, inter- 
fere in favour of robbers, or endeavour to rescue them 
from that death which they deserve ; for they are not 
nobles but the most accursed robbers who oppress the 
poor and break the public peace. True nobility is 
faithful and just, offends no. one, and commits no 
injury." He also wrested from the princes of the 
country the fiefs which they had surreptitiously ac- 
quired in former troublous times, in doing which he 
sometimes ran considerable personal risk. Thus he 
successfully attacked the Count of Savoy in 1283, 
and a desperate battle was fought near Morat, in the 
course of which he was again surrounded and un- 
horsed, having even to plunge into the lake of Morat 
and defend himself there as he clung to a branch of 
a tree until he was rescued by his friends. This 
campaign gave him Morat, Payerne, and Gummenen. 
Equally successful was he against the Counts of 
Burgundy and Wurttemberg. The former had placed 
himself under French protection and relied upon 
Philip IV., but when the latter's ambassadors came to 
Rudolph, as he lay encamped on the banks of the 
Doux, and bade him to leave French territory, they 



TROUBLE. WITH BOHEMIA. ?g 

got the following answer : " Tell Philip that we await 
his arrival, and will convince him that we are not here 
to dance or make merry, but to give law with the 
sword." On this occasion, also, as provisions were 
becoming scarce, he revived his men by gathering a 
turnip from a field and eating it at the same time, 
stating that he had never had a heartier meal. As to 
the Count of Wiirttemberg in Swabia, he forced him 
to give up his plundering ways and keep the peace. 
In short, he well deserves the name of being the 
second founder of Germany. 

Trouble meanwhile had been brewing in Bohemia. 
Wenzel II. was so young at the time his father was 
slain that a Regent, Otho, was appointed to control 
the kingdom, but the latter behaved so badly to his 
ward that he even shut him up in a fortress. In 1283 
Rudolph, whose aid had been implored, succeeded in 
getting Wenzel released, and this youth, though only 
fourteen years of age, at once assumed the reins 
of power. On his marriage to Judith, Rudolph's 
daughter, he recovered for Bohemia Moravia and the 
principality of Breslau as well as some territories in 
Silesia ; and his kingdom thus resumed most of its 
ancient glory. 

In 1288 Rudolph met with his first reverse. This 
occurred in Switzerland. He marched against Berne, 
but the growing spirit of independence of the Swiss 
was too strong, and he retired without accomplishing 
his object. 

Soon afterwards, in 1290, his attention was directed 
to Hungary, where the Tartars and Cumani had 
caused disorder through their incursions. There was 



80 RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 

a dispute as to the succession to King Ladislaus, 
who had died, so Rudolph took advantage of the 
occasion to appoint his son Albrecht ruler over 
Hungary, as if it were a fief of the Empire. This 
appointment, nevertheless, was not sustained, for the 
Pope objected, and Andreas of Venice having estab- 
lished himself there, Rudolph discreetly ceased' to 
interfere. 

In the following year he again experienced 
disappointment. At this time he was seventy-three 
years of age, and felt himself becoming infirm. 
Accordingly, being desirous of securing the Imperial 
throne to his son Albrecht, he laid the matter before 
the Diet at Frankfurt, and the evasions of the 
members on that occasion were productive of deep 
mortification to the aged ruler. Heartbroken and 
as if presaging his end, he said : " Let me go to Speier 
and see the kings my predecessors." He had only 
got as far as Germersheim when he suddenly died, 
July 15, 1291. His body was conveyed to Speier, 
where he is buried. 

Rudolph of Habsburg is undoubtedly a historical 
character fitted to rank with Alexander the Great, 
Caesar, and Napoleon, and in personal worth he far 
excelled his contemporaries. He was of great 
stature, being nearly seven feet in height, but was 
extraordinarily thin. He had a small head which was 
almost entirely bald, a large aquiline nose, a pale 
complexion, and a grave composed countenance. He 
was plain, unaffected, and simple in dress, believing 
more in a majestic bearing and princely virtues than 
in royal apparel. His manners were most captivating 



RUDOLPH'S CHARACTER. 8l 

and his whole deportment so superior that those with 
whom he came in contact never failed to be fascinated 
by him. " Ceil philtro pertralicbat omnes " (He 
fascinated every one as if with a love potion), says 
Dornavius. His religious piety, too, was strong, and 
it is related that once when he was riding to a hunting 
expedition he met a priest on foot trudging through 
the mud to administer the sacrament to some dying- 
person, whereupon he immediately alighted and gave 
his horse to the holy man, remarking that it ill 
became him to ride while the bearer of Christ's body 
walked on foot. He was strict in discipline but easy 
of access even to the lowest ; " for God's sake," he 
once said to his attendants, " let them alone, I was 
not elected Emperor to be secluded from mankind." 
Of his magnanimity there are many anecdotes. On 
the Marchfeld he spared the man who had unhorsed 
him, and in the same war when his men were parched 
with thirst and a flagon of water was offered to him 
he refused it saying, " I cannot drink alone nor can I 
divide so small a quantity among all ; I do not thirst 
for myself but for my whole army." He was twice 
married, his first wife being Gertrude Anne, Countess 
of Hohenberg, who died in 1281 ; and his second wife, 
who was only fourteen when he married her while he 
was sixty-four, being Agnes of Burgundy, one of the 
greatest beauties of the time. It is said with regard 
to the latter that when the Bishop of Speier handed 
her from her carriage he had the presumption to kiss 
her, which led to her complaining to her husband and 
drawing from him the witty remark : " I will provide 
the bishop with an agnus Dei to kiss, but desire he 

7 



82 



RUDOLPH OF HABSBURG 



will leave my Agnes unkissed ! " As a punishment 
the bishop was forbidden to appear at Rudolph's 
court. By his first marriage he had a numerous 
family, seven daughters and three sons in all. Of 
the latter, Hartman, as we have seen, was drowned 
in 1 28 1, and Rudolph, usually styled Rudolph II., 
had also predeceased his father, leaving a posthumous 
son John, so that Albrecht alone survived. 




VII 



FROM THE ACCESSION OF ALBRECHT I. TO THE 
DEATH OF ALBRECHT II. 



WHEN it fell upon them to choose a new Emperor, 
the electors passed over Rudolph's son Albrecht or 
Albert, giving the preference to his cousin Adolphus 
of Nassau. Albrecht, nevertheless, in conjunction 
with his infant nephew John, duly succeeded to the 
hereditary and acquired dominions of his father. 
At first Albrecht felt inclined to resent the slight 
cast upon him by the electors, but troubles at home 
and the thought that all might come right by waiting, 
seem to have caused him to hold his hand. As a 
matter of fact, no sooner was Rudolph dead than the 
inhabitants of Vienna rose in revolt, but Albrecht 
took up a position on the Kahlenberg, obtained re- 
inforcements from Swabia, and, closing all the roads 
leading to the city, soon reduced it by starvation. 
Almost immediately afterwards he was called upon 
to put down a revolt in Styria, which he did with 
equal vigour. Hastening in the depth of winter 
across the mountains all covered with snow, he fell 

83 



84 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

upon the insurgents quite unexpectedly and scattered 
them in confusion. Then a quarrel with the Arch- 
bishop of Salzburg led him thither, and he besieged 
Radstadt. Thinking it prudent however to conclude 
an armistice, as he was threatened by the Bavarians, 
he lost no time in doing so. Meanwhile Adolphus's 
unpopularity had been constantly growing, and about 
1298 a league was formed to depose him, which 
Albrecht naturally joined. Their aim was success- 
fully accomplished at Mainz on June 23, 1298, and 
Albrecht was elected in his stead. Adolphus did not 
submit without a struggle, and a battle was fought 
between the rivals at Gelheim, between Speier and 
Worms. In the course of this battle the two chiefs 
met face to face, and Adolphus on seeing Albrecht 
exclaimed to him, " Yield your life and your crown ! " 
whereupon Albrecht with the reply that " the event is 
in the hand of Providence," aimed his lance at the 
other and killed him on the spot. 

Albrecht, having won this decisive victory over his 
opponent, thought it as well to have his former 
election at Mainz confirmed, after which he was 
crowned at Aix la Chapelle, August 24, 1298. At 
his first diet held soon afterwards at Niirnberg his 
wife was made Queen of the Romans, and his sons 
Rudolph, Frederick, and Leopold were invested with 
the provinces of Austria, Styria, and Carniola. Now, 
feeling himself fairly established, he turned his atten- 
tion to the extension of the Empire. First, he 
approached the French king, Philip the Handsome, 
in a friendly way at Quatrevaux, though a boundary 
line between their respective dominions was not then 



2QQ 




SEAL OF ALBRECHT I. 



[From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke Rudolph 
and others.) 



86 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

fixed : then he laid claim to Holland, Zeeland, and 
Friesland, on the ground that they reverted on the 
death of John, Count of Holland, without issue as 
fiefs to the Empire. In this last effort he proved 
unsuccessful, for, having launched troops into the 
Netherlands and found opposed to him there a 
superior force under the Count of Hainault, he retired 
upon Cologne without risking a battle. At Cologne 
negotiations took place, with the result that John of 
Avesnes, the rightful heir through the female line, got 
his title duly acknowledged. Meanwhile Pope Boni- 
face VIII. had refused to recognise Albrecht, but the 
latter paid no heed to him, declaring that he was king 
by choice of the electors, and that the Pope's ratifica- 
tion of that choice was unnecessary. The Pope then 
excited conspiracies against him, and on October 14, 
1300, the Archbishops of Mainz, Cologne, and Trier 
combined with the Duke of Saxony and the King of 
Bohemia against "Duke Albrecht of Austria, presently 
styled German King." Albrecht, however, was too 
quick for them and by his promptness defeated 
their measures. Boniface now, recognising his power, 
changed his tactics and a reconciliation was effected, 
whereupon Albrecht was duly designated by the Pope 
a faithful son of the Church and rightful Emperor. 
Boniface's object was to avail himself of this Austrian 
prince's services, to attack Philip of France, and he 
now not only excommunicated the latter, but gave 
his dominions to the former. Philip, nevertheless, 
was prompt and vigorous, and seizing Boniface at 
Anagni deposed him. The next Pope, Benedict XL, 
was a man of peace and did not seek to foment the 



ACQUISITION OF BOHEMIA. 87 

quarrel between France and Germany, so that war 
was thus averted. 

Now trouble broke out with Bohemia. Jealous of 
the influence of this kingdom and its control over 
Hungarians and Poles, Albrecht started a pretext, 
and in September, 1304, invaded that country. But 
some of his allies treated Albrecht's own dominions 
as if they belonged to his enemies, and others, espe- 
cially the Hungarians, deserted him, so that he was 
compelled at last to retire from Kuttenberg, to which 
he had laid siege, in the utmost disorder. Albrecht 
thereupon issued the ban of the Empire against 
Wenzel II., of Bohemia, but the latter died June 21, 
1305, in his thirty-fourth year, which event rendered 
a renewal of the contest quite unnecessary. His 
successor, Wenzel III., was only seventeen at the 
time, and, recognising his weakness, purchased peace 
by the cession of Eger. In the following year, 
however, on August 4, 1306, Wenzel III. was assas- 
sinated at Olmiitz, and as he left no issue Albrecht 
sought to secure the crown to his own family. The 
Bohemian monarchy was also an elective one, and the 
States having assembled at Prague, found themselves 
divided between Henry of Carinthia and Rudolph of 
Austria. In the end the latter was chosen, though 
the sisters of the late king entered the assembly bare- 
footed and supplicated it on Henry's behalf. On 
April 1, 1306, Rudolph entered Prague in triumph, 
and completely established his authority in Bohemia 
by marrying the widowed queen. Finding, however, 
that his rule was too severe, the nobles broke into 
revolt, and Rudolph died of dysentery on July 4, 1307, 



55 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

as he was besieging Horazdjovic. Upon his death 
the Carinthian party became strong again, and when 
it was proposed that Frederick, Albrecht's second son, 
should be made king, the assembly exclaimed, " We 
will have no Austrian King ! " killed the person who 
made the proposal, and duly elected Henry of Carin- 
thia. Albrecht, of course, could not endure this and 
immediately invaded Bohemia, laying siege to Kolin 
and Kuttenberg, but on the approach of the winter 
he again withdrew, leaving garrisons at Koniggratz, 
Hohenmauth, Jaromer, and elsewhere. Other ex- 
peditions of Albrecht were that into Hungary in 1306, 
when he did little more than devastate the country, 
and those into Saxony and Thuringen in 1307, when 
the greatest indignation was excited among the 
German States, and the Imperial forces were com- 
pletely defeated at Luchau. 

What sealed Albrecht's fate, however, was an in- 
surrection in Switzerland, then a collection of small 
sovereignties and baronial fiefs. In his rapacity he 
had laid his grasp there, not only on the Habsburg 
domains, which his nephew John claimed, but on 
other lands as well, including Schwitz, Uri, and 
Unterwalden, the attempt of his father to appropriate 
which had led to the formation there of a strong 
patriotic association, and the recognition by him of 
their freedom. The Swiss territories being almost 
surrounded by his possessions, Albrecht thought them 
powerless to resist him, and accordingly now 
summoned them to submit, at the same time placing 
governors over them. Among these governors was, 
according to popular tradition, that Gessler who is 



DEATH OF ALBRECHT L 89 

said to have been shot by William Tell. Notwith- 
standing Albrecht's efforts to keep the Swiss in 
submission, on January 13, 1308, a revolution broke 
out, and the simple but independent Alpine shepherds 
rising en masse, expelled the governors and defied 
the whole house of Austria. Albrecht was making 
preparations to avenge this outbreak when he fell a 
victim to a conspiracy headed by his nephew John, 
now nineteen years of age, on the river banks near 
Windisch. He had no sooner stepped from a ferry 
boat when at a word from John, the knights who 
were in the plot closed upon the Emperor and 
clove his skull with an axe. The punishment that 
followed was a severe one. One thousand persons 
are said to have been executed for this treason, all of 
whom were innocent. Agnes, Queen of Hungary, 
and daughter of Albrecht, presided at this retribution, 
and when some sixty-three of these unfortunate 
victims fell before her eyes, she is said to have ex- 
claimed, " Ha ! now I bathe in May dew ! " As for 
John, he was henceforth known as the Parricide, and 
we read that in 13 12, when the succeeding Emperor 
was at Pisa, he approached him in the garb of an 
Augustine monk and begged for pardon. His life 
was granted to him, but he was confined in Italy 
until his death in 13 13. 

Five sons survived Albrecht, but the administration 
of Austria was given to Frederick, and Leopold, the 
eldest of the other four, took over Swabia, Alsace, 
and Switzerland. The Swiss, however, would not 
submit, and when, six years after his father's death, 
Leopold marched his army against them, he was 



gO FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

completely defeated at Morgarten by some 1,400 
Swiss, who had caught his army in a narrow defile. 
More disastrous still was the defeat of Leopold's 
grandson, Leopold III., at Sempach in 1386, yet 
Switzerland was not finally separated from the German 
Empire until 1648 at the peace of Westphalia. 

Albrecht's son, Frederick (the Handsome) was also 
a candidate for the Imperial throne, but the choice of 
the electors fell upon Henry, Count of Luxemburg, 
who placed his son John on the throne of Bohemia. 
Henry of Carinthia had been declared guilty of 
treason, and on that ground deprived of it. Bohemia 
now became an immediate fief of the German Empire. 
Henry VII. also summoned the dukes of Austria to 
surrender their fiefs, but Frederick proudly told his 
messengers to " tell him that within the space of fifty 
years Austria has been the grave of five sovereign 
princes and Henry of Luxemburg may be the sixth 
if he dares to disturb us in our legitimate possessions." 
On Frederick, however, renouncing all claim to 
Bohemia, the Emperor granted to him the lands of 
his house, including the estates seized from his father's 
assassins. 

It was now the object of the Habsburgs to con- 
ciliate the Emperor, and so re-establish in a peaceful 
manner their rights to Schwitz and Unterwalden. 
Accordingly Leopold, Frederick's next younger 
brother, accompanied the Emperor to Italy, and did 
such good service for him there at the siege of 
Brescia that not only did the Emperor betroth him to 
Catherine of Savoy, but himself became engaged to 
Leopold's sister Catherine. Henry VII., nevertheless, 



TROUBLE WITH BAVARIA. 9 1 

did not live to consummate this marriage, for he died 
on August 24, 1 3 1 3, at Buonconvento, near Siena, in 
Italy. Meanwhile the Bavarians had invaded Austria 
but they were driven out by Frederick, who retook 
Xeuburg, and having entered Bavaria devastated the 
country, capturing the town of Reith. Terms were 
then arranged in April, 13 12, at Passau, but peace 
did not last for any length of time. On September 
9, 1312, Otto III. died, and a party in Bavaria having 
assigned the country to the Austrian house the 
latter at once renewed the war. After a defeat 
at Sammelsdorf, however, on November 9, 13 13, 
Frederick concluded a truce at Salzburg, renouncing 
all pretensions in favour of the Dukes Rudolph and 
Louis as administrators and agents of Lower 
Bavaria. 

On the death of Henry, the Habsburg princes 
naturally tried again to secure the Imperial throne. 
A strong party, however, was in favour of Louis of 
Bavaria, and on October 19, 13 14, the day of election, 
both Frederick and Louis were nominated. In due 
course first Frankfurt opened its gates to Louis, and 
then Aix la Chapelle, where he was crowned, while 
Frederick, after starting a siege of Frankfurt, pro- 
ceeded to Bonn, and was crowned there. Then 
Frederick's brother, Leopold, advanced upon Speier, 
where Louis lay encamped, and as Frederick also was 
approaching, the Luxemburg party felt compelled to 
retire upon Bavaria, where they established themselves 
at Augsburg. Xow the Habsburg brothers divided 
their energies, and whilst Frederick watched Louis 
in Bavaria, Leopold marched against the Swiss 



92 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

cantons, but escaped only with the greatest difficulty 
after the disastrous defeat at Morgarten above 
mentioned. For two years the war was continued, 
and Louis's resources were almost exhausted, when he 
was fortunate enough to conclude an alliance with 
King John of Bohemia. The moment soon arrived 
(1322) for a decisive battle, and while Louis and his 
allies mustered an army of about 30,000 foot and 
1,500 horse near Munich, Leopold marched from 
Swabia with a considerable force, and Frederick from 
Austria and Styria with some 18,000 foot, 4,000 
archers, and 7,000 horse. The latter had got as far 
as the little town of Miihldorf, on the Inn, when he 
fell in with Louis's forces, and, without waiting for his 
brother to come up, he at once decided to give battle. 
The conflict took place on September 28, 1322, and 
was long and obstinately contested. Frederick him- 
self headed his men, with the Austrian Eagle resplen- 
dent on his armour, and a golden crown upon his 
head. By midday five hundred of Louis's bravest 
knights had been captured by the Austrians, and it 
almost seemed as if Frederick must gain the day. 
Matters were becoming critical when the Burgrave of 
Niirnberg turned the tide of events by stratagem. 
Riding at the head of four hundred horsemen, with 
Austrian banners like trusty friends in need, he 
fell upon Frederick's exhausted flank and rear, the 
five hundred captive knights also joining once more 
in the fray. The rout that ensued was complete. 
Frederick's horse was killed under him, and he himself 
taken prisoner. Upon being taken before King Louis, 
he was received with the words : " Cousin, never have 



BATTLE OF MORGARTEN. 93 

I met thee with greater pleasure ! " whereto he an- 
swered not. With him was captured his brother 
Henry, who had fought with the greatest bravery, 
and some 1,400 of the Austrian rank and file. Eleven 
hundred men were left dead on the field. 

Leopold, of course, was still in motion, bent upon 
retrieving the humiliation of his house. Louis, how- 
ever, delayed to follow up the advantage he had 
gained ; and at last, as some of his allies were doubt- 
fully disposed, he thought it well to come to terms. 
This was accomplished at Trausnitz on March 13, 
1325. Frederick renounced all claim to the Imperial 
crown, agreed to help Louis against his foes, in 
particular " against him who calls himself Pope," 
John XXII., and undertook to return to captivity if 
he could not fulfil his bargain. Frederick's brothers 
did not readily assent and prepared to renew the war, 
and the Pope absolved even Frederick from his treaty 
oath on the ground that it had been extracted by 
force. The fallen prince, notwithstanding, stuck to 
his word of honour, and being prevented from ac- 
cording to Louis all that the latter had demanded, he 
at once surrendered himself again a prisoner. Louis, 
himself magnanimous, struck with his noble character, 
received him in the most friendly manner, and hence- 
forth, as Peter Abbas says, they " ate at the same 
table, slept in the same bed, and when Louis was 
called into Brandenburg to quell an insurrection 
against his son, he entrusted the government of 
Bavaria to Frederick." It was finally agreed at 
Munich that the two should reign jointly, using a 
common seal and with equality of rights. Soon 



94 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT II. 

after, however, on February 3, 1327, Frederick died, 
and Leopold having also died the previous year, 
Louis was left in undisturbed possession of his throne. 
The Austrian territories now fell into the hands of 
the two remaining sons of Albrecht I., Albrecht and 
Otto, Henry having in the meantime died. They 
seem to have acted together with complete unanimity, 
and not having any aims against the Imperial power, 
soon came to terms with Louis. Some time previously 
Louis had promised Carinthia and Tyrol to the 
King of Bohemia, but now, jealous of the latter's 
greatly increased power and feeling stronger by 
having the assistance of the dukes of Austria, he 
refused to fulfil his promise and transferred these 
provinces to the Habsburgs. They accordingly duly 
occupied Carinthia, but failed to make good their 
right to the Tyrol, the people presenting a united 
front against them. 1 The red eagle vindicated itself 
once more against its two-headed relative. 2 The 

1 Small in extent as the Tyrolese district is, it has at different periods 
had its heroes : 

" Es finden sich der Syrier, 
Trefflich begangne That en, 
Und was die Griech und Medier 

Loblichs begangen hatten, 
Mann waisz wer z'Rom 

Und Babilon, 
Sey auff den Thron gesessen, 

Und warumb soil 
Das werth Tirol 

Seiner Helden vergessen." 

— Old German. 
2 " Fert Aquilam Tyrolis clipeum praestante rubore 
Quae nigri pedis est alias albente colore." 

— Felix Afaleolis, 



MARGARET MAULTASCH. 95 

King of Bohemia, enraged at the slight offered him, 
formed a strong confederacy against both the 
Emperor and the Austrian princes, and, entering 
Austria, ravaged it on every side until arrested at 
Landau by the approach of the Imperial troops. For 
some reason or other, the latter became divided, and 
the Habsburg rulers being left isolated face to face 
with their foes, thought it prudent to come to terms, 
not dishonourable under the circumstances, for they 
retained Carinthia, but renounced all right to the 
Tyrol. Soon after Otto died, February 17, 1339, and 
Albrecht II. acquired sole control. 

Five years later the struggle with Bohemia was 
renewed. John, Prince of Bohemia, had in 1338 
married Margaret Maultasch (literally, a mouth 
like a pocket, or wide mouth), daughter of Henry 
of Carinthia, but had soon quarrelled with her 
and placed her under constraint. Escaping, she 
had recourse to the Emperor, who, as chief judge, 
divorced her from her husband and married her 
to his son Louis, the new bridegroom receiving 
the Tyrol as a marriage portion. This at once 
led to a fresh combination headed by the King of 
Bohemia, but Louis defeated the latter's measures, 
invaded his dominions, and would probably have 
cpmpletely subverted the kingdom but for his 
sudden death in October, 1347. A year previously 
King John of Bohemia had fallen at the battle of 
Crecy with the words on his lips, " God willing, it 
shall never be said that a king of Bohemia fled from 
the battlefield," and his son Charles of Moravia was 
at this time king. On Louis's death, the choice of 



g6 FROM ALBRECHT I. TO ALBRECHT //. 

the electors also fell upon him, whereupon Duke 
Albrecht of Austria concluded peace, and even in- 
duced Charles to uphold the nullity of his brother's 
marriage and confer the Tyrol on Louis of Branden- 
burg. 

The remainder of Albrecht's career was taken up 
with attempts to reduce the recalcitrant Swiss 
cantons. The Republican movement, which had 
won good results in the so-called forest cantons 
(Waldstatte) of Uri, Schwitz, and Unterwalden, 
had now extended as far as Lucerne, and Zurich 
also had joined the Helvetic confederacy. De- 
termined to put down the whole movement if 
he could, Albrecht assembled a large army of 
30,000 foot and 4,000 horse, which he placed 
under the command of Count Eberhard of Wiirttem- 
berg, and which without delay laid siege to Zurich. 
All his efforts were fruitless, nevertheless, and he 
was glad to retire upon terms that the status 
quo ante should be preserved. Such a treaty as this 
could not endure long, for the Swiss were constantly 
growing more bold, and being now joined by Bern, 
the most powerful Helvetic community, objected 
to several of its clauses. Albrecht appealed to the 
Emperor, but the Swiss cantons would arrange no 
settlement until their confederacy was acknowledged 
and the garrison of Zurich, though consisting of 
only 4,000 men, again successfully resisted the com- 
bined Imperial and Austrian troops. Ultimately, 
without any definite agreement being come to, 
Albrecht retired disgusted to Vienna. It is said 
that thereafter he would not allow even the name 



DEATH OF ALBRECHT I J. 



97 



of a Swiss to be mentioned in his presence. 
Possibly, too, the state of despondency into which 
he fell hastened his death, which occurred soon 
afterwards, on July 20, 1358. He is described by 
a contemporary as " a man beloved of God, worthy 
of the esteem of all nationalities, mild and prudent, 
a generous father to many kings and princes." 




VIII 

FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LA.DISLAUS POSTHUMUS 

ALBRECHT II. left four sons, Rudolph, Frederick, 
Albrecht, and Leopold. The first of these had in 
his father's lifetime undertaken the direction of 
affairs, and, being by far the most capable of his 
family, he was, by family compact, confirmed as 
chief administrator under the title of Rudolph IV. 
Though at this time only nineteen years of age, he 
had already formed the ambition to found a state 
for himself, independent of both Emperor and 
Empire. To some extent this was a natural desire, 
for during the previous century the personal power 
of the German Emperors had been gradually 
waning before the growing influence of the princes 
of the realm. Rudolph, too, could not forget the 
fact that he belonged to a race which had in past 
times given three kings to Germany, and that he 
was one of "that Imperial house from which had 
originated all its worldly rights, liberties, and good 
habits." Accordingly, he introduced primogeniture 
as the law of succession among the dukes, and 
assumed various high-sounding titles as well, the 



RE-ACQUISITION OF THE TYROL. 99 

effect of which was to make him almost equal to 
the Emperor in dignity. The latter, however, in 
alarm, summoned his vassal before the Diet, and 
there commanded him to maintain only his father's 
titles, but it would appear he never quite relinquished 
that of archduke, which was subsequently confirmed 
to his house by the Emperor Frederick III. 

Rudolph's period of administration is specially 
notable for the re-acquisition of the Tyrol. Mar- 
garet Maultasch was left a widow in 1361, and as 
she had no surviving issue Rudolph was afraid that 
this district might revert to the house of Bavaria. 
Accordingly, crossing the Alps in winter, he paid 
Margaret a visit, and by holding out to her the 
attractions of his Court at Vienna, he not only 
induced her to proceed there with him, but got her 
to cede Tyrol to him there and then. This transfer 
led to war with Bavaria, in the course of which both 
Austrian and Bavarian lands were devastated. The 
intervention of the Pope, however, suspended the 
contest. About the same time Rudolph further in- 
creased the domains of his house by agreeing with 
Count Albrecht IV. that Gbrz and Gradiska should 
revert on his death to the Austrian dukes. 

Now, Rudolph attended to the internal welfare of 
his dominions, and among other good works rebuilt 
the Cathedral of St. Stephen and instituted the 
University at Vienna. The same year he repaired 
to Italy to attend the marriage of his brother 
Leopold III., but the journey and the climate were 
too much for him, and he died of fever, July 27, 
1365, at the early age of twenty-six. 
L.ofC. 



IOO FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LADISLAUS POSTHUMUS 

Rudolph IV. had no issue, and, his brother 
Frederick having been accidentally killed while 
hunting, the administration of the Austrian pro- 
vinces fell into the hands of the two surviving 
brothers, Albrecht and Leopold, the former assum- 
ing the chief power in accordance with their father's 
family compact. The first effort of the brothers was 
directed to securing the Tyrol. On the death of 
Margaret Maultasch that district was claimed by 
Stephen of Bavaria, who invaded it and took Kuff- 
stein, Kitzbeuhl, and Rotemberg, penetrating almost 
to the borders of Carinthia. The Austrians there- 
upon besought the mediation of the Emperor Charles, 
and after negotiations which were prolonged for three 
years an arrangement was at length come to in 1 369 
at Scharding by which this place, together with Kuff- 
stein and Kitzbeuhl, were ceded to the Bavarians, 
who also received a sum of 116,000 florins in 
return for their renunciation of all claim to the 
Tyrol. Soon after this the differences of character 
which distinguished the two brothers led to a new 
family compact being formed. Albrecht was more 
of the student and a man of peace, while Leopold 
was active and ambitious. Feeling unable for these 
reasons to work together, it was agreed between 
them that Albrecht should assume undivided control 
of Austria, while Leopold took over Alsace, Swabia, 
Styria, Carinthia, and the Tyrol. To this the 
Emperor gladly consented, remarking, " We have 
long laboured in vain to humble the house of 
Austria, and now the Dukes of Austria have 
humbled themselves." 



INVASION OF ITALY. IOI 

Henceforth the chief interest centres round the 
active Leopold III. First he extended his posses- 
sions by purchase and negotiation, adding to them 
Freiburg, Basel, Feldkirch, and various districts in 
Swabia. Then he was called upon to defend his 
rights. Alsace and Switzerland were overrun 
in 1375 by an army of 40,000 men, including 
6,000 English led by his cousin, Enguerrand de 
Coucy, who claimed Alsace from Leopold as the 
marriage portion' of his mother. Although at first 
invincible, this army ultimately got so reduced that 
De Coucy, feeling unable to continue the struggle, 
voluntarily desisted from his demands. Soon after, 
however, Leopold became involved in the quarrel 
between Venice on the one side and the King of 
Hungary and Francis of Carrara on the other. 
Venice had reached a high state of prosperity, and, 
under its Doges and Grand Council, not only ruled 
Istria and Dalmatia, but also the sea as far as 
Constantinople and Asia Minor. In 1357, Louis, 
King of Hungary, who laid claim to Dalmatia, had 
invaded it, and compelled Venice to agree to its 
cession to him. Now, Francis of Carrara sought to 
weaken the Doge's power in Italy. In 1373, accord- 
ingly, he began a war, but being disappointed by his 
expected ally, the King of Hungary, he was soon 
compelled to agree to humiliating terms. Then he 
approached Leopold of Austria, and the latter, in 
1376, burst from the Tyrol into Italy, and for a time 
laid the country waste, but he was at last routed on 
the Pavia and forced to retire. A truce for two 
years was agreed upon, but before this period elapsed 



102 FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LAD1SLAUS POSTHUMUS 

the Venetians succeeded in gaining his neutrality by 
ceding the Trevegiano to him, which, nevertheless, 
proved so troublesome a possession that he was glad, 
in 1383, to sell it to Francis of Carrara for 60,000 
ducats. 

Humiliating as this loss of territory was, a still 
greater disaster was fated to befall Leopold from the 
side of Switzerland. One after another of the Hel- 
vetic communities broke into revolt, notwithstanding 
Leopold's efforts to pacify them by redressing their 
grievances and removing oppressive burdens. Even 
the Swabians joined in the defection. At last 
matters became critical, and in 1386 Leopold started 
at the head of a well-armed force with a view to 
capturing Lucerne and Zurich. He was met, 
however, by a force of some 1,400 Swiss, 
rudely armed and untrained, at Sempach ; but, 
assured of victory, his nobles would not listen to 
prudence which counselled delay, and decided to 
engage at once in battle. " God has," they said, 
" delivered these peasants into our hands, and it 
would be shameful, armed as we are, to wait for 
succours against an ill - armed and almost naked 
rabble." Swiss heroism was, all the same, equal to 
the occasion, and though at first the impetuosity of 
the mountaineers failed to break the line of steel 
opposed to them, Arnold of Winkelried, a knight of 
Unterwalden, rushing forward with the words, " I 
will open a passage into the line ; protect, dear 
countrymen and confederates, my wife and children!" 
grasped in his arms as many of the Austrian spears 
as he could, buried them in his body, and so opened 



DEFEAT AT SEMPACH. IO3 

a gap into which the Swiss rushed. The defeat of 
the Austrians was complete, more than 2,000 being 
slain, including Leopold himself, who refused to 
flee. For a time Leopold's sons continued the 
war, but on April 9, 1388, the Austrians suffered a 
second defeat near Nafels at the hands of only 
400 men of Glarus and Schwitz, over 2,000 of 
the Austrians losing their lives, after which was 
concluded, on April 1, 1389, the seven years' peace 
by which the Swiss were confirmed in their posses- 
sions and relieved of Austrian taxation and im- 
positions. 

On Leopold's death Albrecht III. resumed the 
sole administration of the Austrian territories, but 
this was only a temporary arrangement, and after the 
lapse of a few years he transferred to Leopold's sons 
the government of the provinces held by their father. 
William received Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and 
Leopold the Tyrol, and Swabia, Alsace, and Helvetia, 
but Ernest and Frederick, who were minors, were in 
the meantime left out of the arrangement. Albrecht, 
as we have said, was a pious man and a lover of 
peace and does not seem to have taken much part in 
his brother's campaigns. In 1395, however, he was 
engaged in a war with Bohemia, Wenzel IV. having 
been deposed and imprisoned in Austria and his 
brother John having marched into the latter country 
to his rescue. It was in the course of this struggle 
that he was seized with the illness which caused 
his death on August 29, 1395, at the age of forty- 
six. His loss was sincerely lamented by his subjects, 
for he had maintained internal tranquillity and 



104 FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LADISLAUS POSTHUMUS 

fostered the arts and sciences. The Viennese, 
crowding round his corpse, exclaimed, " We have 
lost our true friend, our father ! " 

Of Albrecht IV., who succeeded his father, little is 
known. We are told that he was " the pious son of 
a pious father," and that he made a pilgrimage to 
Jerusalem. His military enterprises were few. He 
died at Kloster Neuburg, September 14, 1404, in 
the twenty-fifth year of his age, leaving a son of 
seven years of age, Albrecht V. 

On the death of Albrecht IV., William of 
Carinthia took in hand the administration of Austria, 
but in 1406 he died, and from that time the House 
of Austria seems to have divided itself into two 
lines, the Albrechtine and Leopoldine, of which the 
last was afterwards subdivided into the branches of 
Styria and Tyrol. Albrecht, as we have seen, was 
but an infant, and for some years his domains were 
in the hands of Leopold's family, but he was 
declared a major at the age of fifteen, and soon 
showed skill in government. As for the Leopoldine 
branch, on the death of William a redistribution 
took place of their dominions, Leopold IV. retaining 
Swabia, Alsace, and Helvetia, Ernest receiving 
Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola, and Frederick the 
Tyrol. This division resulted in civil commotion 
and disputes among the brothers, and for a time the 
condition of things in the Austrian territories was 
deplorable. In 141 1, however, Leopold died at the 
age of forty, and henceforth Albrecht V. shook off 
the restraint of his uncles and set about healing his 
country's woes. Austrian historians are enthusiastic 



JOHN HUSS. I05 

over the administration of this youthful prince and 
expatiate much on the benefits their country derived 
from his rule. 

What proved of especial service to Albrecht was 
the patronage of the Emperor Sigismund, who was 
also King of Hungary and Bohemia. His daughter 
Elisabeth afterwards became Albrecht's wife, which 
fact no doubt weighed with the electors when subse- 
quently they elected him as King of the Romans. 
It was in the early years of Albrecht's life that what 
is known as the Hussite war broke out in Bohemia. 
John Huss, or Hus, rector of the University of 
Prague, had become imbued with the doctrines 
preached by Wyclif in England and openly pro- 
mulgated them in Bohemia. Accordingly in 1408 a 
persecution was instituted against him by the Roman 
Catholics, and in 1410 he was formally excom- 
municated by the Archbishop of Prague. Popular 
riots followed, the people supporting Huss with 
vigour, and for a time he was left alone, but, having 
received a safe conduct from the Emperor, he went 
in 1 414 to Constance to face the General Council, by 
the orders of which he was seized and thrown into 
prison. On the 6th of July, 141 5, thirty-nine charges 
were brought against him, and he was required to 
recant his alleged errors. He refused to do so, and 
he and his writings were then condemned to the fire, 
his ashes being afterwards thrown into the Rhine. 
Popular feeling in Bohemia now rose to a high 
pitch, even among the nobility, and a league was 
formed for the maintenance of liberty of thought. 
At this juncture Wenzel IV. died, and the Emperor 



106 FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LAD/SLA US POST HUMUS 

Sigismund was elected king. To him accordingly 
the Hussites offered a stern resistance, and under 
Ziska defeated the Imperial troops at Ziskaberg in 
1420, at Deutsch-Brod in 1422, at Aussig in 1426, and 
at Taus in 143 1. At last, on the 30th of November, 
1433, the Compactata of Prague was signed, which 
led to a struggle between two factions of Hussites, 
the Calixtins and Taborites, and it was only after the 
subversion of the latter by the former, that peace was 
assured. In 1435 the Emperor Sigismund, having 
ratified the Compactata, was duly accepted by the 
Bohemians as their king. " Tranquillity was 
restored by means of the Bohemians themselves, 
and the ' event proved the truth of the observation 
made by the Emperor Sigismund, that the Bohemians 
could only be overpowered by Bohemians." 

During this struggle with the Hussites, Sigismund 
had received able assistance from Albrecht, and it is 
to his credit that more than once when the German 
troops fled before the insurgents, Albrecht and his 
brave Austrians held their own. Grateful for this 
aid, the Emperor invested his son-in-law with the 
government of Lower Bavaria, but. the inhabitants 
showing opposition, Albrecht gave up his rights on 
payment of a sum of money. Then the Emperor 
tried to secure Hungary and Bohemia for him, and 
having summoned the chief nobles of these countries, 
he recommended Albrecht to them as his successor. 
"Ye all know Albrecht, Duke of Austria, to whom in 
preference to all other princes I gave my daughter 
in marriage and whom I adopted as my own son. 
Ye yourselves are sensible that he possesses long 



WAR WITH THE HUSSITES. IO7 

experience and every other virtue becoming a great 
prince. He found Austria in a state of disorder, and 
he has restored it to tranquillity ; Hungarians, ye 
have seen him conquer the Turks ; Bohemians, ye 
have experienced his wisdom and valour. He is now 
of that age in which judgment and experience attain 
their perfection, and he is sovereign of Austria, which 
lying between Hungary and Bohemia forms a con- 
necting link between the two kingdoms." Upon 
this all present seized the faltering monarch's hands, 
bathed it in tears and declared that they would ac- 
knowledge none other. Albrecht and Elisabeth, 
being then introduced, were duly proclaimed king and 
queen. A month later, on December 11, 1437, the 
Em.peror Sigismund died, aged sixty-three. Hungary 
at once accepted Albrecht as its king, but in Bohemia 
the Hussites refused to acknowledge him, saying that 
the kings of Bohemia being elected monarchs could 
not confer a right which they did not possess them- 
selves. Albrecht, however, quickly put down all 
opposition and led a large army against the Hussites 
and Poles, the brother of whose king, Uladislaus, had 
been chosen by the opposition party, but at Breslau a 
truce was concluded, Poles and Hussites consenting 
to cease from the strife. 

It was in the midst of these troubles that the 
electors met at Frankfurt to choose a new Emperor, 
but Albrecht's claims were so predominant that on the 
1 8th of March, 1438, he was unanimously requested to 
take the helm of state. Thus after a lapse of 130 
years we find the crown of the " Holy Roman Empire 
of the German nation " a^ain on the head of a scion 



I08 FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LADI SLAVS POSTHUMUS 

of the Habsburg house. As Emperor, he was as 
distinguished for his administration as he had been* 
before, and many were the abuses which he remedied 
and the noble institutions which he founded in 
Germany. His great work, nevertheless, was the 
defence of Hungary from the Turks, who, spreading 
westwards from the Caspian, had conquered Asia 
Minor, and had already several times laid siege to 
Constantinople. About the time of the Emperor 
Sigismund's death they had under Amurath burst 
into Servia and laid siege to Semendria. Help 
having been implored from Germany, Albrecht, soon 
after his accession, set out with an army with the 
object of relieving this place, but he had only got as 
far as the Theiss, when news came of the fall of 
Semendria and the massacre of the garrison. The 
Hungarians in real alarm now joined their forces to 
Albrecht's, but dysentery broke out among both 
the Imperial and Turkish troops, compelled the 
latter to retire, and carried off many of the former. 
Albrecht himself was seized with the disease, and 
began his return to Vienna, saying, " I shall recover 
if I can only once more behold the walls of 
Vienna," but his strength failed him, and he died 
at a little village in the diocese of Gran, October 
17, 1439. His loss was deeply felt, for the trust 
of Germany was in him, and a return of the 
former state of anarchy and disorder was dreaded. 
From his high character he was styled the " Mag- 
nanimous," and even the Bohemian chronicler Barton 
concedes that " he was good, for a German." His 
most famous saying was, " Ein Freund ist des Lebens 



JOHN HUNYADI. IOQ 

bestes Gut " (a friend is life's most precious pos- 
session). 

Albrecht's queen Elisabeth being pregnant at the 
time of her husband's death, and the only other 
members of his family being two daughters, the 
states of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia were re- 
quested to defer the appointment of a successor until . 
after her confinement. To this Austria and Bohemia 
acceded, but the Hungarian nobles forced Elisabeth 
to offer her hand to Uladislaus, King of Poland, on 
condition that her issue by him should inherit the 
Hungarian throne, and ambassadors were sent with 
authority to propose this measure. Whilst the 
matter was under consideration Elisabeth was 
delivered of a son, Ladislaus Posthumus. She at 
once sought to retract her agreement with the 
Hungarians, whereupon two parties arose, that in 
favour of Uladislaus being led by John Hunyadi 
surnamed Corvinus, and that in favour of the infant 
prince being led by Count Ulrich of Cilli, and John 
of Giskra. By the latter Ladislaus was duly 
crowned at Alba Regia in May of 1440. Mean- 
while Uladislaus entered Hungary in triumph, and 
was also crowned at Alba Regia ; but mutual danger 
being imminent from the Turks, and Pope Eugenius 
IV. lending his aid, an accommodation was effected 
by which the King of Poland was to be Regent of 
Hungary during Ladislaus' minority, with the chance 
of succession to him if he died without male issue. 
Elisabeth, however, died suddenly on December 
24, 1442, whereupon this agreement was departed from, 
and Uladislaus at once assumed the title of kins'. 



1 10 FROM RUDOLPH IV. TO LADISLAUS POSTHUMUS 

In Austria and Bohemia too the inhabitants were 
feeling only too severely the truth of the saying : 
" Woe to the land, whose ruler is a child ! " Though 
repeatedly requested to produce their sovereign, Duke 
Frederick V. of Styria, Ladislaus' guardian, kept him 
at Neustadt, and even when on the death of Uladis- 
laus at the battle of Warna the Hungarians decided 
to have Ladislaus as their king the same request was 
denied them. At last about the year 1452 Hungary, 
Bohemia, and Austria combined to free their young 
king from his bondage and siege was laid to Neu- 
stadt ; whereupon Frederick gave up his ward, who 
repaired to Vienna amid the utmost enthusiasm of 
his subjects. It was now that the heroism of John 
Hunyadi, to whom during the king's minority the 
control of Hungary had been granted was particu- 
larly manifested. Constantinople fell May 29, 1453, 
and at once the Turks formed the design of adding 
Hungary to their realms. Troops were sent accord- 
ingly against the Hungarians, but Hunyadi surprised 
the Turkish camp, captured the commander and re- 
turned triumphantly to Belgrade. Next year, however, 
an army of 200,000 men was despatched by Sultan 
Mahomet to avenge this disgrace, but Hunyadi 
applied to Germany for assistance and, receiving it, led 
a flotilla down the Danube, took or sunk the Turkish 
ships opposed to his forces and relieved Belgrade, 
which had been besieged and was now almost ex- 
hausted. The Turks are said to have lost here over 
30,000 men. 

Not long after this event Ladislaus proceeded to 
Prague with the intention of marrying Magdalene, 



DEATH OF LA DI SLAVS POSTHUMUS 



in 



daughter of Charles VII. of France, but in the midst 
of the festive preparations he was suddenly seized 
with illness which terminated fatally in thirty-six 
hours. He was a weak prince, too easily controlled 
by favourites, but his reign was rendered illustrious 
by the greatness of his generals. 




IX 

THE TYROLESE AND STYRIAN LINES 

At this point we must revert to the Tyrolese 
branch of the Leopoldine line. As we have seen, on 
the redistribution of the Austrian dominions, Frede- 
rick, fourth son of Leopold II., received as his portion 
the Tyrol and its dependencies. To these he added 
in course of time the castles of Werdenberg and 
Windeck together with the county of Sargans, the 
Rheinthal, and other territories besides. About the 
time of his assumption of the administration a 
quarrel was brewing between Cuno, the powerful 
abbot of St. Gallen and prince of the German Empire 
and the inhabitants of Appenzel over whom he 
claimed feudatory rights. In 1403 the abbot with 
some 5,000 men was completely defeated by these 
vassals of his near the lake of Constance, and there- 
upon invited Frederick of Austria to aid him. The 
latter in response sent in 1405 a force of 1,400 men 
against Appenzel and St. Gallen, which had also be- 
come refractory, but likewise suffered disaster at the 
hands of these hardy countrymen near the pass of 
Geiss. Annoyed at this defeat Frederick transferred 



FREDERICK AND POPE JOHN. 1 1 3 

Windeck, Sargans, and the Rheinthal to the Count of 
Toggenburg, but the latter was quite unable to stem 
the rising tide, so that in 1406 the revolution had 
spread not only over those lands but as far as the Inn 
and the Adige. Next year, however, the nobles of 
Helvetia and Swabia, in alarm lest disaster should 
fall upon them, raised a force of 8,000 men, marched 
upon the insurgents at Bregentz, raised the siege of 
that place, January 13, 1408, and dictated a peace 
which among other things restored to Frederick his 
territories of Lower Schwitz and Werdenberg. The 
Rheinthal and Sargans he recovered by force. 

Upon the death of his brother Leopold in 141 1, 
Frederick succeeded to the Austrian territories in 
Swabia, Alsace, and the Brisgau. Trouble seemed 
imminent there owing to the influence of the Helvetic 
confederacy and the approaching expiration of a 
twenty years' truce which had been concluded with 
it; but on May 5, 1412, he secured a new peace for 
fifty years. In the Tyrol, too, he secured a tem- 
porary tranquillity, driving out the Dukes of Bavaria 
who had besieged Hall and subduing the Bishops of 
Chur and Trent who had been fomenting discontent. 

Frederick now, however, committed a great error. 
The Emperor Sigismund, to whom he had rendered 
himself obnoxious by declining to do homage to him, 
had at the Council of Constance compelled Pope 
John XXIII. to abdicate, in order to heal the then 
prevailing schism in the Church due to the existence 
of two other Popes, Benedict and Gregory. Frede- 
rick of Austria had attended Pope John at this 
Council with 500 retainers, and now fearing the 

9 



1 14 THE TYROLESE AND STYRIAN LINES 

Emperor's wrath he procured the escape of the Pope 
to Schaffhausen, March 21, 141 5. Thereupon the 
Council, declaring itself superior to the Church, passed 
over all three claimants for the Holy See, elected 
Martin V. and excommunicated Frederick, who was 
besides put under the ban of the empire and deprived 
of his territories. Soon the latter were completely 
overrun by Imperial troops, and at last Frederick 
was constrained to deliver up the Pope and submit 
himself to the mercy of the German Emperor. 
Sigismund, on the occasion, turning to the Italian 
prelates, observed: "You well know, reverend fathers, 
the power and consequence of the Dukes of Austria; 
learn by this example, what a German king can ac- 
complish." Frederick was then detained as a prisoner 
at Constance and his estates were parcelled out among 
the Emperor's favourites. He effected his escape, how- 
ever, on the 1st of March, 141 6, and suddenly appeared 
in the Tyrol, where the inhabitants rallied round him 
and enabled him to resume the government. Sigis- 
mund thereupon renewed the ban of the empire against 
him and proceeded with his spoliation of him until at 
last Ernest of Styria, losing patience at the indigni- 
ties offered to his house, raised an army and suddenly 
appearing at the gates of Constance extorted terms 
from the rapacious Emperor. A reconciliation ac- 
cordingly took place, May 25, 141 8. Frederick took 
the oath of allegiance and agreed to pay a sum of 
70,000 florins, and in return received back nearly all 
his territories except those that had been granted 
to the Swiss. Little of consequence characterised 
his subsequent career and he died at Innsbruck 



DEATH OF SIGISMUND. 1 15 

June 25, 1439, leaving a sole surviving son Sigis- 
mund. 

Sigismund was at the time of his father's death 
but twelve years of age, and at first his territories 
fell into the hands of Dukes Frederick and Albrecht 
of the Styrian line. Soon, however, the young ruler 
himself assumed control. At this time, the only 
remaining Swiss territories in the hands of the Aus- 
trians were Sargans, Kyburg, Winterthur and Rap- 
perschwyl, and these the Helvetic confederacy now 
endeavoured to attack. In this they were completely 
successful, and by 1461 the last remnant of Austrian 
inheritance in Switzerland was gone. For some 
years efforts were made to reduce the power of the 
Swiss, but in vain, and this people from now on 
retained undisturbed possession of their lands. On 
March 16, 1490, Sigismund " the Simple " ended his 
weak and ignoble administration by ceding his 
dominions to Maximilian for an annual payment of 
52,000 florins during his lifetime, and six years later, 
on October 26, 1496, he died a private individual in 
the seventieth year of his age. 

Let us now follow the history of the Styrian line 
which, on the deaths of Ladislaus Posthumus and 
Sigismund, alone survived. Ernest " the Iron," the 
founder of this line, received as his portion the duchies 
of Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola. He was an ener- 
getic and strong-minded man and was constantly at 
variance with his brothers Leopold and Frederick. 
We have seen that it was only when the latter was 
reduced to extremities that he interfered with the 
Emperor Sigismund on his brother's behalf, and his 



Il6 THE TYROLESE AND STYR1AN LINES 

motives then are clearly manifest from the words he 
used : " If Duke Frederick has transgressed, let Duke 
Frederick alone suffer ; why should his punishment 
involve two unoffending princes ? Have you not 
already wrested from the House of Austria the Aargau 
and Thurgau with the lordships of Baden and Lentz- 
burg and transferred them to rustics for sordid gold ? 
Your majesty must act more graciously, that the 
House of Austria may be strengthened in its fidelity 
to you and the Empire and not be compelled to 
complain of the Emperor Sigismund." And again, 
"Since my brother's territories are to be made a 
prey, I will have my share, particularly the Tyrol, 
which is my parental inheritance. The people of 
this country are accustomed to swear allegiance only 
to him who holds the castle of the Tyrol ; that castle, 
therefore, the Emperor must win by the sword." 

Duke Ernest married Cymburga, daughter of the 
Duke of Masoria, whose almost masculine strength 
is renowned, and from her are said to be derived 
the thick lips that subsequently characterised the 
Austrian house. By her he had several children, but 
at his death in 1424 only two sons survived, Frede- 
rick and Albrecht, and two daughters Margaret and 
Catherine. 

Frederick was only nine years of age at the time 
of his father's death, and was therefore placed for 
many years under the guardianship of his uncle of 
the same name ; but in 1436 he assumed in con- 
junction with his brother Albrecht personal adminis- 
tration of the Styrian lands. Soon afterwards, in 
accordance with the custom of his time, he made a 



VICTORIES OF THE SWISS. WJ 

journey to the Holy Land, " anxious to kiss the earth 
sanctified by the footsteps of our blessed Redeemer. 
He visited the Sepulchre of our Lord, beheld Mount 
Calvary, and the palace of Pilate, and ascended the 
Mount of Olives." x On his uncle's death he became 
guardian of Sigismund, and on the death of the 
Emperor Albrecht II. he became Regent of Austria 
and guardian of Ladislaus Posthumus. The German 
States even wished him to become their Emperor, 
but being cold and cautious and fearing the divided 
authority and endless internal disorders he put the 
matter off until the year 1442. On the 15th of June 
of this year, however, he was duly crowned at Aix la 
Chapelle. 

Next year' Frederick was involved in a quarrel 
with the Swiss States and sent a force to help the 
inhabitants of Zurich against the confederacy. On 
sight of the banners of Uri, Zug, and Unterwalden, 
the Austrian forces at once fell back upon Zurich, 
but even out of this town they were driven, the 
banner of Zurich being captured in the streets and 
the burgomaster slain. Frederick was then forced to 
call in the aid of Charles VII. of France, but the 
army of 30,000 men which that monarch sent under 
the Dauphin were, on the 26th of August, 1444, boldly 
attacked by some 1,600 Swiss and compelled to 
retreat. Ultimately the French, being reinforced and 
surrounding the Swiss with their far superior numbers, 
annihilated their opponents. The French losses, 
however, were so heavy that the Dauphin would not 

1 ^Lneas Sylvius (afterwards Pope Pius II.); speech to Pope 
Nicholas V. 



Il8 THE TYROLESE AND STYRIAN LINES 

risk further contests with the Swiss and proceeded to 
plunder the Austrian territories, which so incensed 
the German States that they declared they would 
wage war with France if the troops were not at once 
withdrawn from their country. Upon this peace was 
arranged by the Archbishops of Cologne and Trier, 
and the French withdrew. For some years Zurich 
still continued to hold its own against the con- 
federacy, but in 1449, both parties being by that time 
exhausted, an arrangement was come to by which 
matters reverted to the status quo ante. 

Meanwhile Frederick had been earning renown by 
healing the schism which prevailed in the Church. 
The two rival Popes were Felix and Eugenius, and 
Frederick, with the able assistance of ^Eneas Sylvius, 
procured in 1447 the acknowledgment of Eugenius 
and the abdication of Felix. Two or three days, 
however, after the reconciliation, Eugenius died and 
Nicholas V. was elected Pope. The new head of the 
Church was a weak and timorous man and actually 
hesitated to receive Frederick at Rome because it 
had been foretold to him that the latter was to 
become master of the Papal city, and that in the 
ensuing March the Pope would either be imprisoned 
or die. Prevailed upon by the astute vEneas Sylvius, 
nevertheless, he at length consented, and in 145 1 
Frederick set out with his brother Albrecht and 
Ladislaus, and a numerous suite, for Rome. On the 
1 6th of March of the following year he received from 
the Pope the crown of Lombardy, and on the 19th 
the crown of the Empire. On the latter date he also 
married Eleonora, daughter of the King of Portugal 



MATTHIAS CORVINUS. 1 1 9 

and niece of Alphonso of Naples, but, having a 
superstition that a child begotten in Italy would 
resemble the Italians, he refused for many days to 
consummate his nuptials, only doing so at the 
earnest persuasion of the King of Naples. 

In 1456 Frederick became involved in a dispute 
with Ladislaus relative to the succession to Count 
Cilli, who had met with a violent death and whose 
estates he claimed as part of the duchy of Styria. 
Ladislaus, however, made good his rights and held 
Cilli until his death, when this place of course fell 
into Frederick's hands along with the other Austrian 
territories. Now a contest arose between the Emperor 
on the one hand and his brother Albrecht and nephew 
Sigismund on the other, relative to the family in- 
heritance. To settle the dispute the States ultimately 
intervened and assigned Lower Austria to Frederick, 
Upper Austria to Albrecht, and that part of Carinthia 
which adjoins the Tyrol to Sigismund. A still more 
bitter disappointment was to fall upon him with 
respect to the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. In 
the former country, George Podiebrad was Regent, 
and to him the crown was, on the 7th of May, 1458, 
decreed. Frederick at first sought to oust this 
nobleman, but the latter's talents and power were 
too much for him, and after a time he was constrained 
to desist from interference and confine himself to an 
attempt to secure Hungary. Here again he was dis- 
appointed, for on the 24th of January, 1459, Matthias 
Corvinus was proclaimed King at Buda without a 
single dissentient voice. Despising " the boy King," 
as he called him, Frederick sent an army of 5,000 



120 THE TYROLESE AND STYRIAN LINES 

men into Hungary, but Matthias at once collected 
three armies, sent one against the Turks who also 
threatened him, another against the Bohemians, and 
the third against the Austrians. This last was com- 
pletely defeated by Frederick at Kormund in Styria, 
but as internal troubles in Austria required all his 
attention he could not follow up his victory and 
concluded a truce by which Matthias retained his 
crown on payment of a sum of money. 

Meanwhile affairs in Austria had not gone well. 
Vienna rose in revolt, and Frederick, with only 200 
men, was shut up in the citadel. His appeal to the 
States did not meet with much response, and it 
might have gone hard with him had not the King 
of Bohemia come to his assistance with 13,000 troops. 
These immediately raised the siege. Albrecht had 
to restore the towns and places occupied by him and 
received the government of Lower Austria for eight 
years on condition of paying the Emperor 4,000 
ducats yearly. As for King Podiebrad, Frederick 
showed himself duly grateful by raising his two sons 
to the dignity of princes of the empire and relieving 
the citizens of Prague from all Imperial tolls. New 
quarrels, however, soon broke out between the brothers 
and they were on the point of engaging in war when 
Albrecht died December 4, 1463. 

One would have thought that now Frederick's 
reign would have become one of peace. This was, 
nevertheless, not to be, and down to his death he was 
engaged in one trouble after another. Thus as early 
as 1468 we find him at war with his benefactor, King 
Podiebrad, against whom Pope Paul II. had pro- 



INVASIONS OF THE TURKS 121 

claimed a crusade. On this occasion the King of 
Bohemia broke into Austria, and ravaged the country 
as far as the Danube, but Frederick having got 
Matthias of Hungary to assist him by promising him 
Podiebrad's crown, the latter overran Moravia and 
Silesia and got himself proclaimed King of Bohemia. 
The Bohemian and Hungarian armies kept each 
other for a time in check, but at last they both be- 
came exhausted and a truce was concluded on the 22nd 
of July, 1470. Meanwhile the Turks had been spread- 
ing their devastations uncurbed over Servia and 
Bosnia and were now threatening the frontiers of 
Carniola and Carinthia. Though their course was 
stayed here for a time, in 1473 they succeeded in 
crossing the mountains of Carniola and penetrating 
into Carinthia, retiring with some 20,000 prisoners. 
Two years later they appeared in the heart of Styria, 
advanced as far as Salzburg, but subsequently retired 
with booty and prisoners. 

On the death of Podiebrad in 1471 the Bohemians 
elected as their king Ladislaus, Podiebrad's son, thus 
passing over Frederick once again. The latter, pre- 
ferring this arrangement to the domination of Bohemia 
by Hungary, gave the new king his cordial support. 
In 1474, however, Matthias, having rescued his 
dominions from the inroads of the Turks, even 
defeating Mahomet himself at the head of 100,000 
men, sought to avenge h ; mself on Frederick. In 
June of 1477 he accordingly invaded Austria, and 
before the end of July he had overrun the whole 
of Lower Austria and besieged or captured all the 
fortresses on the Danube including Vienna. On 



122 THE TYROLESE AND STYR1AN LINES 

December 21st of that year, to save his capital, 
Frederick came to terms, receiving back his territories 
on condition of paying 100,000 ducats to Matthias. 
On the retiral of his conqueror, Frederick sought to 
evade payment, whereupon another war ensued which 
lasted four years and in the course of which the 
whole of Lower Austria was captured including the 
capital. Frederick was powerless to help himself 
and seems just to have resigned himself to the in- 
evitable. The Austrian territories remained accord- 
ingly in the hands of Matthias until 1489 when 
Frederick's son, Maximilian, arranged for their retro- 
cession on payment of a sum of 12,000 ducats, but 
Matthias died, April, 1490, before this bargain could 
be carried into effect 

It is worth while noting here that to King Matthias 
Corvinus of Hungary are attributed those well-known 
lines, indicative of the acquisitions of the House of 
Austria by marriage : — 

" Bella gerant alii ; tu, felix Austria, nube ; 
Nam quae Mars aliis, dat tibi regna Venus." 1 

On the death of Matthias, both Frederick and 
Maximilian became candidates for the Hungarian 
crown, but Ladislaus was elected, and thus united 
under him both Bohemia and Hungary. Maximilian 
now showed of what stuff he was made. Within six 
weeks he drove the Hungarians out of Austria, burst 
into Hungary, captured Alba Regia, but was then 
compelled by a mutiny of his troops to retire. Being 

1 Leave the waging of war to others ! But thou, happy Austria, marry; 
for the realms which Mars awards to others, Venus transfers to thee. 



FREDERICK'S AMBITIOX. 1 23 

unable to gather a fresh force he at length in 1491 
relinquished his attempts and at Pressburg arranged 
terms with Ladislaus by which the latter retained 
actual possession of the crown while Maximilian 
assumed the title of King of Hungary, received 
100,000 ducats in money and got the succession 
entailed upon his family. The lands of Austria were 
at the same time retroceded to Frederick. From 
now forward the administration of affairs both in 
Germany and in the hereditary dominions was prac- 
tically resigned to Maximilian. Frederick retired to 
Linz and for the few remaining years of his life enjoyed 
peace and tranquillity there. He died on the 19th of 
August, 1493, at the age of seventy-eight and in the 
fifty-third year of his reign. His character was a 
peculiar one. In comparatively small matters he 
was most punctilious, as the diary written in his own 
hand which is preserved in the library at Vienna proves, 
and he was an adept student of the occult sciences. 
But in affairs of importance he was indecisive and 
even careless. His ambition, however, was great, and 
as his Latin and German anagram — 



ustria 


St 


mperare 


rbi 


niverso 


A 


E 


I 


O 


U 


lies 


rdreich 


St 


esterreich 


nterthan 



shows, he wished Austria to become the mistress of 
the world. 



X 

MAXIMILIAN I 
THE REFORMATION 

THE name of Maximilian is new to the House of 

Austria, and indeed seems to have been of rare 

occurrence generally prior to this time. Frederick 

is even said to have composed it from astrological 

considerations out of the names of Fabius Maximus 

and Paulus JEmilius. The name is not of much 

consequence ; what unquestionably is of much more 

importance is that its bearer was a marked contrast 

to his father, being active and generous, and endowed 

with great tact, brilliant talents, and valuable personal 

accomplishments. We have already seen how he 

acquitted himself against Hungary, but even prior to 

that occasion he had won his spurs against France. 

In April, 1477, he espoused Mary of Burgundy, who 

surprised her counsellors by rejecting the Duke of 

Cleves and choosing Maximilian. The result of this 

match was to excite the hostility of Louis of France, 

and initiate a struggle which continued for more 

than three centuries. But Maximilian's energy was 

124 



AFFAIRS IN FLANDERS. 12$ 

equal to the occasion, and by the bloody but glorious 
victory at Guinegatte he fairly established himself 
in the Netherlands. On the death of Mary in 1482, 
however, the province of Flanders treated him as a 
stranger, and adhered to his infant children Philip and 
Margaret. Louis also lent it his support, and Maxi- 
milian was on tne'23rd of December, 1482, compelled 
to agree to the famous treaty of Arras, by which 
young Margaret was affianced to the Dauphin, her 
mother's lands going with her as a marriage portion. 
Some years later, Maximilian, since i486 become 
King of the Romans, renewed the war with France, 
but the inhabitants of Ghent, not liking his foreign 
troops, kept him in confinement. In 1488, neverthe- 
less, he obtained his release, and in the following year 
he confirmed the treaty of Arras. At the time of 
his father's death, Maximilian was engaged with the 
Turks, and these he was successful in completely 
driving out of his dominions. Then on the 16th of 
March, 1494, he married Bianca Maria, niece of the 
regent of Milan — a lady much inferior to him in 
position and birth. About the same time, he trans- 
ferred to his son Philip, now a youth of sixteen, the 
administration of the Netherlands. 

Meanwhile, Charles VIII. of France had crossed 
the Alps and reduced the Kingdom of Naples, enter- 
ing the capital in 1495 as King of Naples, Sicily, and 
Jerusalem. Jealous of his rival, Maximilian called a 
Diet together at Niirnberg, on the 26th of May, 
1496, with a view to concert means for rescuing 
Italy from the French. All his eloquence, however, 
failed to stir up the German princes, whose sole 



126 MAXIMILIAN I. 

aim now was to secure internal peace. After much 
delay he found himself able to muster for Italy only 
3,000 men, but before their services were required, 
Charles had already retired into France. In 1496, 
hearing that Charles was meditating another expedi- 
tion Maximilian entered Italy at the head of a small 
body of troops, but he could not accomplish 
much, and returned disgusted and indignant at 
the apathy of his people. Indifferent also was 
his successs in the Netherlands and in Switzer- 
land. When Maximilian offered to lead his troops 
in person against the latter country, he was met 
with the reply that they were not assembled to 
fight with the peasants of the Alps, but to defend the 
frontiers of Germany, and in September, 1499, he saw 
himself forced to declare the Helvetic States free from 
the jurisdiction of the Imperial Chamber, and exempt 
from all Imperial taxes and contributions. 

On the death of Charles VIII. the situation in 
Italy completely changed. Louis XII. taking ad- 
vantage of Maximilian's troubles with the Swiss, 
marched, in 1499, with 22,000 men against Milan, 
and within three weeks had not only entered the 
capital but got himself appointed Duke of Milan. 
Next year, Ludovico Sforza, the late duke, returned 
at the head of some 10,000 men, chiefly Swiss 
mercenaries, and retook all his dominions from the 
French, only the citadel of Novarra under the 
celebrated Bayard holding out to the last. While 
this siege was in progress Louis sent another army 
of 20,000 men, also chiefly Swiss, into Italy, where- 
upon Ludovico's men refused to fight against their 



PEACE OE TRENT. \2j 

countrymen and actually betrayed their leader into 
the hands of the French, he dying in captivity in 
1 510. These events naturally disturbed Maximilian 
very much, and he even summoned a diet at Augsburg 
with a view to organising an armed interference, but 
he was again met with the declaration that all foreign 
wars must cease until internal affairs were placed upon 
a proper footing. At last, on the 13th of December, 
1 501, he came to terms with Louis at Trent, Louis 
obtaining Milan, and in return paying a sum of money 
and engaging to help the Emperor against the Turks, 
and to make good his claim to the reversion of 
Bohemia and Hungary. 

Maximilian had now lost nearly all the prestige 
which his early successes had brought him. The 
doings of the Bavarians, however, in 1 504, enabled him 
to recover that to some extent. Duke George of Bavaria 
had died in December of the previous year, leaving 
no male issue, and Maximilian, being appealed to by 
the States, adjudged the lands by the feudal law of 
succession to Albrecht and Wolfgang of Munich, in 
preference to the late Duke's daughter Elisabeth. 
The latter and her husband having taken forcible 
possession, Maximilian assembled his troops and 
marched upon his opponents who were encamped 
near Regensburg, and gained a complete victory. In 
the course of the battle Maximilian himself incurred 
great personal danger, being both dragged from his 
horse and on the point of being slain when he was 
rescued by Duke Eric of Brunswick, to whom out of 
gratitude he granted the honour of knighthood and 
the revenues of the county of Goritz. On the con- 



128 MAXIMILIAN I 

elusion ol peace, Maximilian himself retained as 
remuneration for the trouble and expense inflicted 
upon him, Kuffstein, Geroldseck, Kitzbeuhl, Ratten- 
burg, Nyburg on the Inn, Kirchburg in Swabia, and 
the lordship of Weissenhorn with the landgravate of 
Alsace. 

Meanwhile there were other troubles abroad, not 
only in Italy and the Netherlands but also in 
Spain. On the death of Isabella, Queen of Castile, 
her elder sister Joanna and Philip were proclaimed 
joint sovereigns, but Philip dying and Joanna be- 
coming insane, a contest arose between the houses 
of Austria and France for the regency. Her hus- 
band Ferdinand, however, assumed the administra- 
tion, and after a time Maximilian ceased to trouble 
himself about the matter. Then in the Netherlands 
Maximilian found his guardianship of his grandsons 
disavowed, but these countries being threatened by 
the Duke of Gelderland were soon glad to submit. As 
for Italy, Julius II., who became Pope in 1503, had in 
1 506 invited Maximilian to enter the country, in order 
to vindicate its liberties and wrest the territories of 
the Church from the French. A burst of patriotism 
broke out in Germany, and an army of over 100,000 
men was proposed to be formed, but Louis, alarmed 
at these preparations, relinquished his designs on 
Italy, and when, in 1 508, Maximilian set out, it was at 
the head of only 25,000 men. Ultimately, as he was 
afraid to fight both Venetians and French with so 
small an army, he agreed on the 6th of June, 1 508, 
to an armistice with the Venetians for three years, 
leaving Gorz and Gradisca in their hands. 



LEAGUE OF CAMBRAY \2Q 

Smarting at fiis non-success against the Venetians 
Maximilian settled all pending disputes between the 
house of Austria, the King of France and the Duke 
of Gelderland, and joined what is known as the 
league of Cambray for the conquest and partition 
of the Venetian territories. In April of 1509 
Maximilian assembled the diet at Worms, but the 
objections with which they met him were so strong that 
. they extracted from him the celebrated " Apology " 
for his conduct. " I have exposed my treasure, my 
countries, my subjects and my life, while the generality 
of the German States have remained in dishonourable 
tranquillity at home. ... I have more reason to com- 
plain of you than you of me, for you have constantly 
refused me your approbation and assistance ; and 
even when you have granted aids, you have rendered 
them fruitless by the scantiness and tardiness of your 
supplies, and compelled me to dissipate my own 
revenues and injure my own subjects." The diet 
failed him, but Maximilian assembled on his own 
account an army of 18,000 men, and with the assist- 
ance of other 18,000 French, Spanish, and Italian 
troops, laid siege to Padua, but the garrison made a 
stout resistance and he had to retire. The Pope, too, 
now secretly helped the Venetians and, in fact, tried to 
alienate the diet from the Emperor. At Augsburg, 
however, the diet granted him some aid, and in 1 5 1 1 
hostilities recommenced. Maximilian now joined 
Louis with more enthusiasm than before, the two 
monarchs trying to revive in France and Germany 
the Pragmatic Sanction of Charles VI L, which was 
calculated to diminish the revenues and patronage of 

10 



I36 MAXIMILIAN I. 

the Church, and joining their forces with a view to 
deposing the Pope. Julius, nevertheless, was equal 
to the occasion, and with the aid of 1 7,000 Swiss, who 
assumed the title of " Defenders of the Church and 
Subduers of Princes," compelled the French to quit 
Milan. But Gaston de Foix, a youth of only twenty, 
being appointed Governor of Milan, used such tact in 
negotiating with the Swiss, that these returned to the 
Alps. After this, collecting a small force he recovered 
Brescia and Bergamo, and, joining the Duke of Fer- 
rara, laid siege to Ravenna. At the last-mentioned 
place, on the. 1 ith of April, 1 5 12, a memorable battle was 
fought, in which young Gaston was killed, but which 
ended in a complete victory for the French. Mean- 
while efforts had been made to draw Maximilian from 
the league of Cambray, and these now began to bear 
fruit. The Germans who had contributed largely to the 
victory at Ravenna left the field, and a truce was 
arranged between Maximilian and the Venetians. In 
the following year, 1 5 13, he actually joined the English 
in the campaign which is notable for the Battle of 
Spurs, in which the Chevalier Bayard and other 
distinguished officers were captured. Although he 
avoided assuming the leadership in that campaign, 
the operations were chiefly directed by him. 

The next event of importance had reference to 
Hungary and Bohemia, over which countries, as we 
have seen, Ladislaus was king. Maximilian, anxious 
to make his hopes of succession secure, now (in 15 15) 
arranged a double marriage between Louis and Anne, 
son and daughter of Ladislaus, and two of his own 
grandchildren. In due course the two marriages 




LANCEMEN. 

(Sixteenth Century.) 



I32 MAXIMILIAN I. 

took place, the Archduke Ferdinand gaining with the 
hand of Anne the crowns of Bohemia and Hungary. 
Ladislaus even pressed Maximilian, who was a 
widower, to marry his daughter, though she was 
only thirteen and the proposed bridegroom fifty-eight, 
but he declined the honour, remarking, " There is 
no method more pleasant to kill an old man than to 
marry him to a young bride." 

In 1 5 16, with the intention of, if possible, re- 
establishing the Imperial authority in Italy, Maxi- 
milian descended upon that country from Trent 
with an army of 30,000 men, relieved Brescia, 
captured Lodi, and laid siege to Milan. Discontent, 
however, now broke out amongst his Swiss mercen- 
aries, and so fearful did he become lest the fate of 
Ludovico Sforza should befall him, that at night he 
fancied he saw- the spectres of his ancestor Leopold, 
who lost his life at Sempach, and of Charles, who fell 
at Nancy, warning him against the Swiss. So alarmed 
did he at last become, that, hastily breaking up his 
camp, he retired beyond the Adda, his departure 
being soon followed by the loss of Brescia and the 
siege of Verona. Finally, seeing his intentions frus- 
trated, Maximilian came to terms with Francis I. of 
France, at Brussels in December, 15 16. He retained 
Roveredo, Riva, and other conquests in Friaul, ceded 
Verona to the Venetians for a sum of money, and 
received from Francis a discharge of a debt of 
300,000 crowns which he had contracted with 
Louis. 

The last public act which Maximilian performed 
was to summon a diet at Augsburg with the object of 



MARTIN LUTHER 1 33 

getting his grandson Charles, afterwards Charles V., 
elected King of the Romans, and also arranging for 
another campaign against the Turks. The latter had 
now conquered Egypt, and seemed to be intent on 
taking Europe, so to speak, on its flank. Disappointed 
hitherto in his foreign wars, Maximilian seems to have 
wished to repair his character as a general in another 
contest against the foes over whom he had originally 
triumphed. The diet met in July, 15 18, and the 
Emperor tried to convince the States with all his 
pristine eloquence. His arguments were ably sup- 
ported by the Pope's legate, who brought him a con- 
secrated hat and sword. Nevertheless, it was all in 
vain ; some of the members went so far as to declare 
the Pope to be a more dangerous enemy to Christen- 
dom than the Turks ; and ultimately the settlement 
of the matter was deferred to a subsequent meeting. 
Equally unfortunate was he in the matter of his 
grandson's election as King of the Romans. Despite 
all Maximilian's arts, the States would not commit 
themselves, and the Emperor had to retire from the 
diet discomfited. 

It was about this time that Martin Luther, a Roman 
Catholic monk, was summoned to Rome to answer for 
his attacks upon indulgences. The system of indul- 
gence involved the idea that the Church was able to 
forgive sin and exonerate sinners from all their trans- 
gressions. It had now become a matter of scandal, 
and pardons were sold for money to such an extent 
that it was largely upon those receipts that the Papal 
Court was maintained in its extravagance. Luther, 
indignant at this, had, on the 30th of September, 



134 MAXIMILIAN I. 

1 5 17, affixed to the door of the church at Wittenberg 
ninety-five propositions on the subject, which raised 
so much commotion that Pope Leo X. was compelled 
in the following year to summon him to Rome. The 
summons was disobeyed, and Luther fled to Augs- 
burg. Maximilian's aid was now invoked to get the 
Reformer to subordinate himself to the Pope's will. 
He does not, however, seem to have actively assisted 
in the policy of coercion. Even the Emperor, 
nevertheless, would probably soon have had to inter- 
fere, in which case nothing would have availed to 
save Luther from the vengeance of Rome ; but at the 
critical moment when the Papal Bull was issued 
asserting the efficiency of indulgences, Maximilian 
died, and proceedings against Luther were for the 
time suspended. 

Although only fifty-nine years of age, Maximilian 
had long been in a weak state of health, and we are 
actually told that for the last four years of his life he 
never travelled without a coffin, which with all the 
requisites of a funeral, he kept in a box. On his 
deathbed he was most minute in his directions as 
to how he should be buried. When recommended by 
his physicians to make his peace with God, he said, 
" I have long done so, or it would now be too late," 
and to the bystanders, weeping with emotion, he 
remarked, " Why do you weep because you see a 
mortal die? Such tears as these rather become 
women than men." His death took place on the 
morning of the nth of January, 15 19. 

Maximilian was undoubtedly an extraordinary man. 
In size he was not beyond the average, but he was 



Maximilian's character 135 

muscular and well-proportioned, and of a majestic 
bearing. He had an aquiline nose, small mouth, and 
pointed chin. In early boyhood he suffered from 
some physical defect which led to his being styled " the 
dumb prince " ; this he afterwards got over, and even 
in his youth his manners were most captivating and 
amiable. As a scholar he was most accomplished ; he 
was well versed in Latin, French, German, and Italian 
skilled in various arts and sciences, and his works 
comprise treatises on such diverse subjects as religion, 
military matters, hunting, hawking, and cookery. If 
he was a failure as a warrior, it was not due to in- 
capacity as a general, but to the circumstances of his 
time. His reforms in internal affairs were certainly 
wise and useful. He divided the Empire into ten 
districts, namely, those of Austria, Burgundy, the 
Upper and Lower Rhine, Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia, 
Westphalia, and Upper and Lower Saxony, and 
established a government in each of these divisions. 
He also instituted boards and colleges for the 
administration of justice, management of the revenue, 
&c, and abolished many oppressive taxes and exac- 
tions. He had, however, his faults ; he was of far 
too sanguine a temperament and constantly over- 
stepped the bounds of prudence. But though often 
in danger, he was always fortunate in pulling through, 
and we read of the most marvellous escapes from fire, 
shipwreck, and other accidental dangers. His bravery 
and intrepidity, too, led him often voluntarily into 
perils. We are told that at Worms, in 1495, a French 
knight, named Claude de Batre, hung up his shield 
under his window as a challenge to all Germans to 



136 



MAXIMILIAN I. 



try the lance with him, whereupon as none accepted 
the risk, Maximilian himself, ashamed of his country- 
men, undertook the task. He was wounded in the 
fray, but ultimately compelled the Frenchman to 
yield. 




XI 



CHARLES V 



THE REFORM AT/OX. 



CHARLES V., Maximilian's successor, was the son 
of that Emperor's son Philip, and was born at Ghent 
February 24, 1500. At the early age of sixteen 
he assumed the administration of the Netherlands, 
and on the death of Ferdinand the Catholic he suc- 
ceeded in conjunction with his mother Joanna to the 
crowns of Castile and Aragon, and took to himself 
the title of King of Spain. Hardly had he succeeded 
in securing the homage of his Spanish subjects, who 
had been somewhat restive and discontented, when 
the death of Maximilian occurred. The prospect of 
obtaining the Imperial throne was now opened up to 
him, though there were also other strong candidates 
in the field, among them Henry VIII. of England and 
Francis I. of France. With the view of avoiding the 
conflicting interests of other countries, however, the 
electors offered the crown to Frederick of Saxony 
(the Wise), who nevertheless magnanimously de- 
clined it. At last, after a six months' interregnum, 

137 



I38 CHARLES V. 

Charles was, on the 28th of June, 15 19, duly raised 
to the throne. He at once accepted the honour and 
declared his intention to proceed to Germany. Next 
year he started for his new dominions, on his way 
meeting Henry VIII., whom he charmed with his 
manner. He was crowned at Aix la Chapelle, 
October 23, 1520. 

Charles V. was now the most powerful monarch in 
Christendom. No king since Charlemagne had united 
such extensive territories or exercised so widespread 
an authority. Not only did he hold the vast dominions 
of Spain, including Naples and Sicily, the seventeen 
provinces of the Netherlands, and the possessions of 
the German Empire, but he also succeeded, in con- 
junction with his brother Ferdinand, to all the terri- 
tories of the House of Austria. His power was so 
great that it seemed to threaten to extinguish all 
civil and individual liberties, and possibly this might 
have occurred to a greater extent than was the case 
had it not been for the attacks of the French and the 
Turks. Nevertheless, at the outset of his reign the 
German Kuzfursten tried to limit their monarch's pre- 
rogative by causing him to sign a formal deed or 
capitulation of thirty-six articles, the chief items of 
which were the entrusting of the government service 
to Germans, the use of the German language as 
official, the confirmation of the Germanic body in the 
exercise of all its legislative and executive powers, 
and the consulting of the electors in matters affecting 
themselves and their relations to foreign States. 
Charles also had to promise not to attempt to render 
the Imperial crown hereditary in his family. 



PROGRESS OF THE REFORMATION 1 39 

With regard to the Austrian territories, these were 
divided between Charles and Ferdinand, the latter 
getting Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the 
Tyrol, and the provinces of Swabia and Alsace. 
The division was not of much importance, for Ferdi- 
nand ultimately became King of the Romans, Emperor 
of Germany, and head of all the Austrian dominions. 

Charles's first diet met at Worms January 6, 
1 52 1, and over that assembly he presided in person. 
Part of the business was stated by him to be " to 
concert with the princes of the Empire effectual 
measures for checking the progress of those new and 
dangerous opinions which threaten to disturb the 
peace of Germany, and to overturn the religion of our 
ancestors," but notwithstanding that anti-Protestant 
declaration, an aid of 20,000 infantry and 4,000 
cavalry was granted to accompany the Emperor 
to Rome, though only as an escort and not for 
aggressive purposes. Charles had already shown 
himself hostile to the Reformers, and now the ques- 
tion had become more pressing owing to the burning 
by Luther the year before of the famous Papal Bull, 
condemning his writings. The diet, however, showed 
itself perfectly indifferent to the assertions of Papal 
infallibility, and Charles thought it wise to offer 
Luther a safe conduct to Worms. It was there before 
the diet that the Reformer uttered those famous 
words : " I neither can nor dare retract anything. 
My conscience is a captive to God's word, and it 
is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. 
Here I stand ; I cannot do otherwise. God help me. 
Amen." Charles was indignant at what he deemed 



140 



CHARLES V. 



to be opposition to him personally, but he could do 
nothing without the co-operation of the German 
Princes ; and it was only after the electors of Saxony 
and Bavaria had left the diet that he dared to issue 
his famous Edict of Worms denouncing Luther with 
the ban of the Empire. In March of 1522, neverthe- 




MEDAL WITH PORTRAITS OF CHARLES V. AND FERDINAND I. 

{From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 

less, we find Luther braving the proscription and 
preaching at Wittenberg against innovations upon 
his doctrines, the fact of the matter being that 
Charles was too busy with his troubles in Spain, 
France, and the Low Countries to enforce his Edict 
against him. 



PEASANT REVOLTS 141 

In Charles's absence, two more diets were sum- 
moned to Nurnberg by the Archduke Ferdinand, 
who seems to have been appointed Regent or presi- 
dent of a council of regency. At the first of these 
an epistle of Pope Adrian's was read, severely cen- 
suring the princes of the Empire for their lukewarm- 
ness, but the latter retaliated by publishing a list 
of grievances against the Church of which they 
claimed redress. So bold did the Lutherans now 
become, and so popular were their doctrines, that 
when Faber, Canon of Strassburg, was enjoined to 
make a tour of the country to preach against the 
Reformation, he dared not do so, and when the 
second Diet of Nurnberg met, January 10, 1524, 
the Pope's legate was listened to in vain. Even in 
Austria the new doctrines made rapid progress not 
only among the masses of the people but among the 
professors of the University of Vienna, and even 
among the aristocracy and nobility 

The next years are remarkable for risings of the 
peasants all over the country. These were attributed 
to the Lutherans, and served to foster the ill-feeling" 
between them and the Catholics. In 1524, and again 
in 1529, diets were held at Speier, but all business 
was subordinated to the religious question, and with 
reference to that the Catholics got no satisfaction. 
Meanwhile Charles had successfully expelled the 
French from Italy, and even captured Francis I. at 
Pavia. Having concluded the treaties of Barcelona 
with the Pope, and of Cambray with Francis, he saw 
himself, in 1530, able to turn his attention to the 
Reformers. Accordingly he summoned a diet to 



142 CHARLES V. 

meet at Augsburg in April. " I have convened this 
assembly," his circular stated, "to consider the 
differences of opinion on the subject of religion ; 
and it is my intention to hear both parties with 
candour and charity, to examine their respective 
arguments, to correct and reform what requires to 
be corrected and reformed, that the truth being 
known and harmony re-established, there may, in 
future, be only one pure and simple faith, and as all 
are disciples of the same Jesus, all may form one 
and the same church." His sincerity, however, was 
doubted by the Protestant princes, for he remained 
on the most intimate terms with the Pope, and these 
magnates actually deliberated- whether they should 
not assemble in arms and attack him before he was 
in a situation to put them down. When the diet met 
the Protestant princes would not attend the holy 
sacrament or high mass, the Margrave of Branden- 
burg exclaiming : " I will rather instantly offer my 
head to the executioner than renounce the gospel and 
approve idolatry," and presented Charles with what 
has been called the Confession of Augsburg. This 
the Emperor desired to be read in Latin, whereupon 
the Chancellor of Saxony replied : " Sire, we are now 
on German ground ; and I trust that your majesty 
will not order the apology of our faith, which ought 
to be made as public as possible, to be read in a 
language not understood by the Germans." Charles 
felt inclined to have recourse to rigorous measures, 
but as even the Catholics were divided among them- 
selves, he for the present kept up the mask of 
moderation. But on the 16th of November, 1530, he 



CONVENTION OF N URN BERG 1 43 

published the intolerant decree, re-establishing all the 
doctrines, ceremonies, and usages of the Romish 
Church, and to get this enforced he induced the 
diet, the majority of which consisted of Catholics, to 
appoint his brother Ferdinand, who lately had also 
become King of Bohemia and Hungary, as King of 
the Romans, to administer affairs in the Emperor's 
absence. 

The Protestants became alarmed, and even thought 
of calling in foreign aid, but fortunately a determined 
invasion of the Turks into Hungary distracted 
Charles's attention. A temporary religious truce was 
accordingly arranged at Nlirnberg in August of 
1532, granting to the Protestants the free exercise of 
their religion until the diet of the Empire should 
settle a rule of faith. Protestants and Catholics then 
combined to drive out the Turks. No sooner was 
the danger past than Charles again showed his 
perfidy, whereupon the Protestants renewed their 
foreign friendships, and the Landgrave of Hesse, 
entering Wiirttemberg at the head of a considerable 
force, defeated the Austrians at Lauffen, and restored 
the duchy to the Protestant Duke Ulrich. Through 
the mediation of the Duke of Saxony and Elector of 
Mainz, however, a convention was in July, 1534, 
concluded at Cadan in Bohemia by which the con- 
vention of Nlirnberg was renewed, whereupon the 
Protestant princes straightway recognised Ferdinand 
as King of the Romans. 

During the next ten years religious quiet of a kind 
prevailed, the Protestants meanwhile consolidating 
their power, and the Catholics declining to concede 



144 CHARLES V. 

anything. Charles, recognised the difficulties, and held 
aloof, though manifestly favouring the Catholics, but 
he never relinquished his purpose to bring the 
Lutherans again within the Church. Accordingly, 
when in 1 545 he had concluded peace with Francis 
at Crespy, he summoned a general council to meet 
at Trent, and declared that he would pronounce the 
ban of the Empire against all who disobeyed its 
decrees. The Protestants were, notwithstanding, 
firm in their resistance, and the Council of Trent, 
instead of introducing reforms into the Church, con- 
tented themselves with declaring certain propositions 
from Luther's works to be heretical. In 1546 matters 
assumed a more serious aspect. The attempts to 
divide and weaken the Protestant position had some 
result, and Charles had concluded a league with 
the Pope, whereby he got 30,000 troops and a 
liberal subsidy. War seemed imminent, and indeed 
Charles did not deny that he intended to put down 
the Protestants by force. The latter, therefore, con- 
sidering delay to . be dangerous, at once resolved 
upon aggression, and in July, 1546, the Emperor 
was astonished with the news that the Elector of 
Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse were advancing 
in conjunction upon the Danube. At the same time, 
other Protestant troops under Schartlin proceeded 
towards Regensburg, where the Emperor was with his 
diet. When these forces were united, they com- 
prised an army of 80,000 men, all well equipped 
and enthusiastic, and Charles who had only 
some 8,000 men about him at once retired to 
Landshut to await the arrival of reinforcements. 



BATTLE OF LUCHAU 1 45 

These having come up, and the Protestant troops 
not pressing on, he was soon enabled to advance 
again upon Regensburg and Ingolstadt, and take up 
a defensive position which his opponents did not 
venture to assail. Dissensions in the Protestant 
army further assisted Charles, and before the end of 
the year he had reduced the Duke of Wiirttemberg 
to submission, regained Ulm, Augsburg, Strassburg, 
Frankfurt, and other important cities, and forced the 
Elector Palatine to acknowledge his authority. In 
the following year he was equally fortunate in coping 
with the Elector of Saxony, and at the battle of 
Luchau near Wittenberg, notwithstanding the per- 
sonal bravery of the Elector, the Protestant forces 
were completely routed. The Elector himself was 
wounded in the face and taken prisoner. When 
brought before Charles he addressed the latter as his 
most powerful and gracious Emperor, whereupon the 
Emperor in a passion exclaimed : " So, I am now 
your gracious Emperor ; lately you only vouchsafed 
me the title of Charles of Ghent ! " Being tried by 
court-martial he was sentenced to death, but finally 
his life was spared on his securing the surrender of 
Wittenberg. Amid all his troubles, however, he 
would not renounce his fidelity to the new faith. 

In due course Charles entered Wittenberg in 
triumph, after which event he seemed to display 
more tolerance towards the Lutherans. He even 
visited the grave where the great Reformer had 
recently been buried ; and when his supporters urged 
him to displace the ashes of this enemy of their 
Church, he replied : " I war not with the dead, but 

1 1 



I46 CHARLES V. 

with the living ; suffer him to repose in peace ; he is 
already before his judge ! " Soon afterwards the 
Landgrave of Hesse, the sole remaining leader of the 
Protestant party, came in and surrendered upon 
terms, but though he had deemed his freedom secure 
Charles detained him in custody, saying that he would 
only abide by his written engagements. 

Charles now regarded his purpose of more firmly 
establishing the Catholic religion as practically accom- 
plished, and in 1 548 summoned a diet to Augsburg to 
settle religious disputes. All that was done, neverthe- 
less, was to arrange a formulary of twenty-six articles, 
known as the Interim, couched in ambiguous terms, 
and revocable at a future time by a general council. 
During his absence in the Netherlands, the Interim 
became, to all intents and purposes, a dead letter, but 
on his return in 1550, he at once set about reinforcing 
it. He also obtained a Bull from the Pope for the con- 
vocation of a council at Trent, and summoned another 
diet at Augsburg to acknowledge that council, and pro- 
mise submission to its decrees. The diet acquiesced 
in everything, though now even the Catholic princes 
began to dread Charles's designs. Next year Magde- 
burg surrendered after a siege of ten months, and 
Charles was then once more in complete possession 
of all his territories. 

In his struggle with the Protestants, Charles had 
derived much help from Maurice of Saxony, himself a 
Protestant, but the latter, whether from a feeling that 
he had not been duly rewarded for his services, or 
from jealousy of the Emperor's power to which he 
had so much contributed, now began to intrigue with 



TRANSFER OF THE NETHERLANDS 1 47 

the defeated Protestant leaders. In 1552 Maurice 
boldly disclosed his plans, and suddenly appeared at 
the head of 25,000 men before the gates of Augsburg, 
declaiming that he came not as a foe, but simply to 
prevent the destruction of the Protestant religion, and 
to rescue the Landgrave of Hesse. At the same time 
the King of France, styling himself the protector of 
the liberties of Germany, began hostilities. Charles, 
in dismay and utterly unable to cope with this 
twofold attack, hastened to conclude an armistice. 
Maurice, however, without waiting 'for its termination, 
advanced to the Alps, defeated Charles's troops at 
Reute, and took Ehrenburg. He was thus within only 
two days' march of Innsbruck where the Emperor 
was, and the latter on hearing the news at once left 
the place, arriving on a dark night in sorry plight 
at Villach in Carinthia. Though his brother's media- 
tion was now invoked, Charles nevertheless proudly 
stuck to his position. At last, external perils from 
the Turks, who had invaded Hungary, compelled 
him to agree to the so-called Pacification of Passau, 
which assured to the Protestants liberty of conscience 
and restored the Landgrave of Hesse. In 1555, the 
memorable diet met, which was to confirm this truce, 
and general articles of mutual toleration were agreed 
to, so that henceforth Charles lost all hope. Soon 
after, on October 25, 1555, accompanied by his son 
Philip, who the previous year had married Mary 
Tudor, Queen of England, he repaired to the States 
of the Netherlands assembled at Brussels. There, 
tottering beneath his infirmities, and leaning on the 
Prince of Orange, he resigned the crown of the 



I48 CHARLES V. 

Netherlands to Philip. Next year he also handed 
over the throne of Spain in the same way to Philip, 
and retired to the convent of St. Just, near Placentia 
in Spain, where he passed the remainder of his days. 
Two-and-a-half years later, on the 21st of September, 
1558, he died in the fifty-ninth year of his age, and 
forty-fifth of his reign. Philip was known as Philip II. 
of Spain, but did not succeed in getting elected to 
the dignity of German Emperor. 




XII 

FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II 
UNION WITH HUNGARY. 

We have already seen now, on the death of 

Maximilian I., Charles and his brother Ferdinand 

partitioned their territories so as to give the latter 

what amounted to sole control of Austria and its 

dependencies. At the time in question, the regency 

appointed by the late Emperor had been forcibly 

replaced by a council of disaffected individuals, but 

Ferdinand, having dissipated this council, reinstated 

the regents, and himself assumed supreme control. The 

first great increase of his authority was in 1526, when 

he became King of Bohemia, Louis having perished 

in the flight from Mohacs, after the total defeat there 

of the Hungarians by Solyman and his Turks. 

Bohemia and Hungary now again became separate 

monarchies, for in the latter country Ferdinand found 

too strong a competitor in John of Zapoli, the 

waivode of Transylvania. This man having put 

himself under Solyman's protection, received from 

him the crown of St. Stephen, and promised, as a 

149 



I50 FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 

feudatory vassal, to obey the Sultan. On Solyman's 
retreat, Ferdinand thought to drive his rival out, but 
the Turks coming back almost immediately in even 
larger numbers, he had to concert measures of 
defence. The Turks, were, however, on this occasion 
delayed by the memorable siege of Guntz, which 
under Nicholas Jurissitz and some 800 men, held 
out against their vast hordes so long, that Charles and 
Ferdinand were enabled to collect a force of 90,000 
infantry and 30,000 cavalry to oppose them. There- 
upon Solyman abandoned his enterprise, September, 

1532. 

Although .danger from the side of the Turks was 
now past for the present, Ferdinand was not in a much 
better position with regard to Hungary. The 
Germans, though united against the Turks, would 
not assist the House of Austria in its policy of 
aggression, and after some years of desultory war- 
fare, Ferdinand agreed in 1538 to leave to John 
those parts of Hungary of which he had gained 
possession, on condition that he would renounce all 
hostile alliances and join him in keeping out the 
Turks. Two years later John died, leaving an infant 
son, whereupon a strong party in Hungary, passing 
Ferdinand over, proclaimed this child king and placed 
their country under the protection of the Sultan. It 
was this event which for the next hundred years 
made the greater part of Hungary subservient to the 
Ottoman power., All Ferdinand's efforts to recover 
the country proved ineffectual, and in August, 1545, 
he was even compelled to buy of Solyman a truce of 
five years for an annual tribute of 30,000 ducats. 



THE BLOODY DIET I 5 I 

Meanwhile, the religious movement had been 
assuming greater proportions, and in Bohemia 
especially the Lutheran doctrines had made vast 
progress. Ferdinand seems to have been at first as 
hostile to these as was his brother, and his attitude 
soon excited grave discontent among his Bohemian 
subjects. Accordingly, when in 1546 he published 
the ban of the Empire against the Elector of Saxony 
and the Landgrave of Hesse, and ordered the 
Bohemian troops to advance into the Voigtland of 
Saxony, many of these mutinied. In course of time, 
matters reached such a pass that, fearing lest Ferdi- 
nand should suppress their liberties by force, the 
States of Bohemia assembled at Prague, gave 
directions for collecting an army of defence, and 
nominated a committee to act as delegates for 
them. 

Ferdinand sent orders to them to disband their 
troops, but his directions were disregarded, and the 
States excused themselves on the ground that their 
forefathers had always raised troops whenever a 
foreign army approached the frontiers, and that their 
present movement was not a menace to either their 
king or their emperor. Ferdinand did not stop to 
remonstrate with them, but advanced into the 
country with a large army, entered Prague in 
triumph, and soon compelled the States to see that 
their opposition to him would be fruitless. The 
punishment of the ringleaders, too, seems to have 
struck terror into the people, and at the Bloody Diet 
at Prague in 1 547, so called because it was opened 
with the execution of four prisoners, they humbly 



152 FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 

submitted to all the king's decrees. Henceforth he 
set about consolidating his power, changed the 
constitution by making it an hereditary instead of 
an elective ' monarchy, established the order of 
Jesuits with control over the public education, and 
finally, in 1 562, got his son Maximilian proclaimed 
his successor. 

Such was the state of matters in Hungary and 
Bohemia when on the 7th of August, 1556, Charles V. 
formally abdicated in favour of his brother, the King 
of the Romans. Owing, however, to constitutional 
difficulties, arising from the unprecedented nature 
of the act, Ferdinand was not formally acknow- 
ledged as Emperor until February, 1558. Now an 
important change took place in the relations of the 
German Emperor to the Pope. The occupant of the 
Roman See at this time was Paul IV., a vain and 
overbearing man. He declared that Charles's act 
was that of a madman, and that he ought to have 
resigned his imperial dignity to the head of the 
Church from whom he had received it. On these 
grounds he refused to receive Ferdinand's application 
to be crowned at Rome, which had hitherto been 
regarded as necessary to confer the title of Emperor, 
and to enable the Emperor in turn to nominate a 
new King of the Romans. After an examination of 
precedents, however, the personal coronation by the 
Pope was declared to be unnecessary, and henceforth 
the Roman Pontiff ceased to be regarded as superior 
to the Emperor. 

As a ruler, Ferdinand was much more prudent 
than his brother. Finding a union between Catholics 



ECCLESIASTICAL REFORMS I 53 

and Protestants impossible of accomplishment, and 
dreading a renewal of the religious warfare of the 
previous reign, he no longer sought to coerce the 
Reformers. At the same time he never abandoned 
the hope of persuading them peacefully to heal the 
schism in the Church, and by way of promoting a 
compromise he even went so far as to solicit the 
Pope, Pius IV., a much more reasonable man than 
his predecessor, to please the Protestants by per- 
mitting the marriage of the clergy. At first the 
Protestants seem to have had their suspicions lulled, 
But, the former Council of Trent being about to 
resume its sittings, and the Pope having sent epistles 
in which Catholics and Protestants alike were styled 
"sons," the Protestants at Naumburg in 1560 
formally resolved to continue their adherence to the 
Confession of Augsburg. When the Council met 
accordingly in January, 1562, Ferdinand, recognising 
that radical changes must be made, himself required 
the number of cardinals to be reduced to twenty-six, 
dispensations and exemptions- from the civil law 
to be discontinued, simony and pluralities to be 
abolished, and the farming of ecclesiastical offices to 
cease. He also proposed that the bishops should be 
compelled to live in their dioceses, that fees for the 
administration of the sacrament should no longer be 
levied, that excommunication should be limited to 
mortal sins, that religious services should be held in 
the vulgar tongue, that a new church ritual should be 
made, that the rigour of fasts should be abated, and 
that marriage should be lawful for the clergy. No 
wonder that the Court of Rome became indignant 



154 FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 

and that dissension sprang up in this assembly to 
such an extent that the Emperor himself felt bound 
to dissolve it with the remark that " Nothing good 
could be expected of it, even if it were to continue its 
sittings for a hundred years ! " 

All this time the quarrel with Hungary was going 
on, but about the year 1562 Ferdinand, being 
desirous of the peaceful succession of his eldest son 
Maximilian to the Imperial dignity, concluded a 
truce of eight years with the Sultan Solyman, 
agreeing to pay the latter tribute and leave John 
Sigismund in undisturbed possession of Transylvania. 
Notwithstanding this bargain, however, John Sigis- 
mund continued to make incursions into the Austrian 
part of Hungary, and even captured Zatmar, but 
on the 25th of July, 1564, Ferdinand died, and his son 
fell heir to his religious and political troubles. He 
was a learned man and an able ruler, and despite the 
religious factions in his territories was much beloved 
by all his subjects. Many were the abuses that were 
remedied in his reign, and, among other reforms, he 
passed an edict regulating the alloy, value, form, &c. 
of the coinage, which henceforth bore the profile, or at 
all events the designation, of the reigning sovereign. 

In religious matters, Maximilian II. was in many 
respects the counterpart of his father, being strongly 
attached to the Lutheran doctrines. For a time, 
indeed, there seems to have existed a danger of an 
open rupture between father and son on this account, 
for in a letter to the Elector Palatine, the latter says : 
" I have so deeply offended my father by maintaining 
a Lutheran preacher in my service that I fear I shall 



Maximilian's policy 155 

be expelled as a fugitive." He remained steadfast 
in the faith, however, and declared that he was ready 
to " sacrifice all worldly interests for the sake of 
salvation." Such being his opinions, his accession 
was naturally dreaded by the Catholics, but from 
motives of prudence he remained in the Church, 
retained his father's confessor, and otherwise openly 
showed favour to the Romish Church. In this way 
the utmost toleration was secured to both parties, and 
throughout his reign religious peace prevailed. 

Maximilian's first diet met at Augsburg in 1566, 
and both Protestants and Catholics, renouncing for 
the time being discussion of their religious differences, 
combined to vote aids to defend the Empire against 
the Turks. Only after that did the Emperor allow 
the States to approach matters ecclesiastical, and even 
then he so managed the deliberations that while all 
surrounding nations were involved at this time in 
religious feuds and civil wars, Germany enjoyed 
perfect civil and religious peace and tranquillity. 
When the massacre of St. Bartholomew took place 
on the 24th of August, 1572, notwithstanding that he 
was father-in-law to Charles IX., who promoted it, 
Maximilian expressed the greatest abhorrence of the 
act, and when, after Charles's death, Henry of Valois 
was passing through Vienna to take possession of 
the throne, the German Emperor took occasion to 
dissuade him from similar sanguinary proceedings, 
telling him that " no crime was greater in princes 
than to tyrannise over the consciences of their 
subjects ; that, far from honouring the common 
Father of all, by shedding the blood of heretics, they 



156 FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 

incurred the divine vengeance ; and, while they 
aspired by such means to crowns in heaven, they 
justly exposed themselves to the loss of their earthly 
kingdoms." Maximilian also boldly espoused the 
cause of the Netherlands, which at this time were 
groaning under the iron tyranny of the Duke of Alba. 




MAXIMILIAN II. 

(From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 

He even sent his brother Charles to Spain to induce 
Philip to recall the Spanish troops and adopt more 
lenient measures, an interference which only called 
forth this question : " Why the Emperor, instead of 
making these useless representations, did not prevent 
the Prince of Orange and his brothers from levying 



ATTACKS BY THE TURKS 1 57 

troops in the Empire ? " He had, nevertheless, the 
satisfaction before the close of his reign of seeing, 
in 1576, the confederacy of Ghent formed by the 
Prince of Orange, whereby matters in the Nether- 
lands resumed much of their appearance prior to the 
administration of the Duke of Alba. 

The only external troubles that affected Maxi- 
milian's quiet reign arose from the side of Hungary, 
and the dismembered fiefs of the Empire, particularly 
Prussia and Livonia. To the state of affairs in 
Hungary at his accession allusion has already been 
made. Since even after that event, John Sigismund 
continued to make inroads into the Austrian terri- 
tories, Maximilian despatched a force under a distin- 
guished general, Swendy, which not only recovered 
the places seized by the Prince of Transylvania but 
captured Tokay, Kovar, Erdad, and Bathor. There- 
upon Solyman made preparations for an invasion, 
but Maximilian divided the forces which he had col- 
lected into three parts, and while one of these under 
Swendy opposed the Transylvanians on the Theiss, 
and another under the Archduke Charles held Illyria, 
the Emperor himself with the main body, amounting 
to 80,000 men, awaited the Turks on the Raab. 
These invaders were again detained on their march, 
this time by the little garrison of Szigeth, which held 
out until it was reduced to 600 men, when, sallying out 
for a final fray, they were cut down almost to a man. 
The Turks, however, had meanwhile lost about 20,000 
men, and the Sultan Solyman, dying suddenly, they 
retired. Maximilian seized the opportunity to send, in 
1567, an embassy to Constantinople which succeeded 



I58 FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 

in securing an armistice on condition that the Prince 
of Transylvania should retain the territories then held 
by him. These terms were not disadvantageous to 
the German Emperor, for his Hungarian territory 
was now extended beyond the Theiss. A year or two 
later, John Sigismund himself came to terms with the 
Emperor, engaging to renounce the title of King of 
Hungary, to acknowledge Maximilian as his superior 
sovereign, and to allow Transylvania to become a 
dependency of the crown of Hungary should he die 
without male issue. Soon afterwards, on the 16th of 
March, 1 571, John Sigismund died, and all his pos- 
sessions, except Transylvania, reverted to Maximilian. 
The principality elected as its new waivode Stephen 
Bathori, in which appointment the Emperor had no 
hesitation in concurring, especially as that prince took 
the oath of fealty to the crown of Hungary. 

As for the dismembered fiefs, these threatened to 
disturb the peace of the Empire, owing to the pro- 
mise that had been wrested from Maximilian at his 
accession to restore the Imperial authority over them. 
Eastern Prussia was at this time in the hands of 
Albert of Brandenburg, who had abandoned the 
Teutonic knights on joining the Protestant cause. 
Against him this equestrian order now sought to 
organise opposition, and, coming to Maximilian, 
claimed of him the execution of his promise to 
recover Prussia thus wrested from them. The 
Emperor, on the other hand, aware that all the 
Protestant princes would support the House of 
Brandenburg, and that any interference on his part 
might involve a disastrous foreign war, managed skil- 



DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN I 59 

fully to induce the Teutonic knights to desist from 
their purpose. Livonia, which had been captured 
from the Order by Ivan Vasilievitch II., Czar of 
Russia, would also have led to serious complications, 
but here again Maximilian's tact and diplomacy 
proved likewise successful. 

The last years of Maximilian's reign were employed 
in securing his various dominions and dignities for 
his family. With that object in view, in 1572, he got 
the States of Hungary to crown his son Rudolph as 
their king, and at a diet at Prague, in 1575, the States 
of Bohemia also conferred their sovereignty on 
Rudolph, who thus became king both of Hungary 
and Bohemia. Next he procured for the same son 
the title of King of the Romans, the latter being duly 
crowned at Regensburg on the 1st of November, 1575. 
Maximilian had further endeavoured to procure the 
crown of Poland, and with it the Duchy of Lithuania ; 
but in this he had proved unsuccessful, Henry of 
Anjou, brother of Charles IX. of France, having pre- 
viously been elected to these dignities in May, 1 573. 
On Henry's elevation to the throne of France, his 
efforts were again renewed, and he was, in fact, chosen 
king of Poland ; but, a strong party opposing him, and 
setting up Stephen Bathori of Transylvania, and he 
himself dying soon afterwards, that country as well 
as Lithuania, became lost to his house. Maximilian 
died at Regensburg, on the 12th of October, 1576, in 
the fiftieth year of his age, and the twelfth of his 
reign. 

Many are the eulogiums that have been passed 
upon this monarch. Even the Poles represented him 



i6o 



FERDINAND I. AND MAXIMILIAN II. 



as having consolidated the Christian world, and as 
having won more glory by peaceful means than other 
princes had gained by their military deeds. And the 
Bohemian ambassadors sent to Poland to promote his 
interests in that quarter said : " We Bohemians are as 
happy under his government as if he were our father; 
our privileges, our laws, our rights, liberties, and 
usages are protected, maintained, defended, and con- 
firmed. No less just than wise, he confers the offices 
and dignities of the kingdom only on natives of rank; 
and is not influenced by favour or artifice. . . . But 
what may be almost considered as a miracle is the 
prudence and impartiality of his conduct towards 
persons of a different faith, always recommending 
union, concord, peace, toleration, and mutual regard. 
He listens even to the meanest of his subjects, readily 
receives their petitions, and renders impartial justice 
to all." 




XIII 



RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 



ATTACK UPON PROTESTANTISM 



On the death of Maximilian II., Rudolph, his 
eldest son, then twenty-five years of age, succeeded, in 
due course, to the Empire. He also got sole posses- 
sion of the Archduchy of Austria. Like his father he 
was mild and peacefully disposed, and his literary 
acquirements were great, but he seems to have been 
very superstitious, and much addicted to the so-called 
arts of alchemy and astrology. He had been brought 
up among the Jesuits, and though at first he tried to 
appear tolerant to the different religious parties, we 
shall see that he was far from being so in the long 
run. All the same, even towards the close of his 
reign, we find him allowing the Viennese to worship 
according to the Lutheran ritual, as well as in private 
houses. The Protestants had, however, increased 
their power so much, and ousted the Catholics from so 
many public offices, that it was not long till Rudolph's 
Catholic spirit urged him to impose restrictions upon 
them which, nevertheless, proved a dead letter, as the 

12 l6 i 



1 62 • RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 

German States refused to execute them, saying that 
'* they were bound to obey God rather than man." 
This attitude of his led, in 1595, to revolts on the part 
of the peasants, but these being easily suppressed only 
tended to make matters worse. Meanwhile, Calvinists 
and Lutherans were drawing more and more apart, 
even indulging in mutual persecution, and the Jesuits 
taking advantage of these dissensions weakened both 
parties in the popular eye by turning their arguments 
against themselves. 

In some districts civil war actually prevailed for 
years. Thus in Strassburg, for instance, in conse- 
quence of Rudolph's depriving the Protestants there 
in 1585, of the houses and revenues which they had 
appropriated, the Emperor's decrees were boldly 
defied, and when, in 1592, the latter proposed to put 
the bishopric in sequestration under the care of his 
uncle, Ferdinand of the Tyrol, the Protestants of the 
place set up the Margrave of Brandenburg, who 
straightway levied troops, took possession of Kochen- 
burg and Dichtstein, and prepared to conquer the see. 
It was not till 1604 that this dispute was termin- 
ated by the mediation of the Duke of Wtirttemberg, 
who procured the resignation of the Margrave and 
the reinstatement of the Catholics. So again, in 
1594, the Elector Palatine formed a Protestant con- 
federacy at Heilbronn, whose aims were not to grant 
aids to the Emperor against the Turks until their 
grievances were redressed. For a long time this con- 
federacy was powerless owing to the disunion among 
the chiefs, but its numbers and strength steadily 
increased, until at last, in 1603, they felt able to form 



164 RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 

an offensive and defensive alliance at Heidelberg to 
maintain their civil and religious liberties. 

Soon, in Austria, the Protestant religion became 
practically suppressed, and in Bohemia and Hungary 
the same policy was in force. Rudolph made Prague 
his chief place of residence, but his mandates against 
all meetings of Lutherans and Calvinists, and his de- 
priving them of the power of holding appointments 
or having schools of their own, aroused a tremendous 
amount of hatred and jealousy among all classes and 
orders. In fact, Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary were 
all driven to the verge of insurrection. In the Empire 
a like rigour prevailed, and the Imperial ban was 
executed against Aix la Chapelle. By this time, too, 
the Aulic Council, instituted by Maximilian I., in 
1 50 1, had acquired great power and had become an 
instrument of religious persecution. Its jurisdiction, 
accordingly, the Protestants were anxious to have 
curtailed, and this was, in fact, one of their points at 
the diet of Regensburg in 1608, when they would not 
proceed to vote supplies until their grievances were 
redressed. " Fifty years' experience has taught us 
that the Imperial Court always presses the decision 
of matters interesting to itself, and having obtained 
its purposes no longer cares for the redress of 
grievances." This diet was so stormy and turbulent 
that it actually separated without the matters for 
which it had been summoned being so much as 
discussed. 

With regard to external matters, the Turks still 
threatened Hungary, and, in order if possible to keep 
that country secure from their inroads, Rudolph 



INVASION BY MAHOMET 1 65 

placed Croatia under the government of his uncle, 
Charles of Styria, as an Imperial fief. The latter con- 
structed there the fortress of Karlstadt on the Kulpa, 
afterwards the capital of Croatia, and formed other 
military colonies as well. For years, nevertheless, 
predatory warfare continued to prevail along this 
frontier. In 1 591, for instance, the Pasha of Bosnia 
burst into Croatia, captured Wihitz and Petrinia and 
laid siege to Sissek, but the Austrians attacked 
the Turks at the last-mentioned place, and totally 
defeated them with a loss of 12,000 men. Immedi- 
ately afterwards Sultan Amurath, having terminated 
his wars with Persia, poured immense hordes into 
Hungary and Croatia, and secured among other 
places Sissek and Raab. The defection of Transyl- 
vania, however, which, in 1595, formed an offensive 
and defensive alliance with Austria, seems to 
have materially turned the scale against the 
Turks, for in that year we find them once again 
driven back. But in 1596 Mahomet, who had 
succeeded xA.murath, resolved to retrieve his defeats 
and, invading Hungary, succeeded in capturing 
Erlau and defeating the Austrians under the Arch- 
duke Maximilian. At that point the Turks relaxed 
their efforts, so that their success was not pursued. 
Still, armies had annually to be maintained and 
provided for the defence of the frontier, and the 
rapacity of the German troops, combined with the 
religious intolerance practised against the inhabitants, 
served greatly to alienate Rudolph's Hungarian 
subjects. 

As a matter of fact, a rebellion broke out in 



1 66 RUDOEPH II. AND MATTHIAS 

Hungary in 1603 under Stephen Botskai, the principal 
noble in Upper Hungary. Crowds flocked to his 
standard, and in an incredibly short space of time he 
expelled the Austrian troops out of Kaschau and 
other parts of Hungary. In this revolt Transylvania 
also joined, and, the Turks backing up the movement, 
the Austrians were driven out of that principality. 
Botskai was now proclaimed King of Hungary and 
Prince of Transylvania, but he refused the honour for 
the time being and, prosecuting his campaign, subdued 
all Upper Hungary, right to the walls of Pressburg. 
In very truth, Austrian affairs were in a deplorable 
state. Rudolph's apathy, too, amid all these troubles, 
only tended to aggravate the situation and increase 
the all-prevailing discontent. 

So weak was the monarch at this time and so bad 
the state of matters throughout the Empire, that in 
1606 his brother Matthias, who, since the death of 
Ernest the year before, had become heir-presumptive 
to Rudolph, formed a secret compact with his brother 
Maximilian and his cousins Ferdinand and Maxi- 
milian Ernest of Styria, whereby he was declared 
head of the house of Austria and was, if possible, to 
bejmade King of the Romans. Next Matthias gained 
over Botskai and got the reversion to the Hungarian 
territories held by him. Then, with Botskai's 
assistance, Matthias succeeded in a short time in 
pacifying Hungary and in also concluding a truce 
with the Sultan on condition that both parties should 
retain possession of the lands then held by them. 
Ostensibly all this had been accomplished by 
Matthias as an official of Rudolph's, but now the 



AFFAIRS IN BOHEMIA 1 67 

latter, suspicious of his brother's intentions or through 
knowledge of the secret compact, sowght to pass 
Matthias over and get his cousin Ferdinand of Styria 
made King of the Romans. To begin with, he ap- 
pointed Ferdinand president of the diet of Regensburg 
in 1608, and at the same time he bitterly inveighed 
against Matthias's conduct in making peace with the 
Turks. The latter, however, averse to the employ- 
ment of force, seemed for the time to tamely submit, 
but having on his side a large following of Protestants, 
whom he had conciliated both in Austria and 
Hungary by numerous concessions, he easily obtained 
from the diet a ratification of his acts. 

As the Emperor, nevertheless, still refused to assent 
to the treaty of Vienna with the Turks, Matthias set 
about organising an armed force to compel him to do 
so. Even these preparations hardly roused Rudolph 
from his state of apathy, and it was not until Matthias 
had left Vienna and crossed the frontiers of Bohemia 
with 25,000 men that he set about protecting himself 
in earnest. On coming among the Moravians, 
Matthias had been hailed with acclamations by them, 
and now boldly declaring that his purpose was to 
demand the Government of Austria, Hungary, and 
Bohemia together with security for his undisturbed 
possession after his brother's death, he sent a formal 
appeal to the Bohemian States. " I could not," he 
said, " see with indifference the ruin of my illustrious 
house. To obviate the troubles arising from the delay 
in ratifying the peace of Vienna I formed a union at 
Pressburg between the States of Hungary and Austria, 
to which the accession of Bohemia and its depend- 



1 68 RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 

encies is required ; and as the Moravians have already- 
joined the confederacy, I trust that the States of 
Bohemia, with its other dependencies, will assemble 
at Czaslau where I shall appear on the 4th of May 
to concert measures for completing this necessary 
arrangement." With Bohemia, however, he was not 
so successful as elsewhere and the States did not obey 
his summons. On the other hand, as he was now 
approaching Prague, Rudolph summoned the states 
to that town and held a diet which was throughout a 
scene of violence and turbulence. The Protestant 
majority actually assembled at his palace and forced 
him there and then to yield to their demands for 
concessions. Their demands being granted, both 
Protestants and Catholics rallied round him, an army 
of 36,000 men was collected and Prague put in a state 
of defence. All ideas of compromise were then 
abandoned, skirmishes took place between the 
opposed forces and a decisive battle was imminent 
when overtures were again made by Matthias and 
accepted by Rudolph. It was thereupon agreed that 
Rudolph should cede Hungary, Austria, and Moravia 
to Matthias, confirm the peace of Vienna and declare 
his brother to be his successor in Bohemia. Soon 
afterwards the latter made a triumphal entry into 
Vienna. 

Now, however, when he had seemed to have gained 
his point, difficulties beset Matthias at the hands of 
his supporters. The Protestants of Austria, conscious 
of their power, leagued together to secure their ancient 
privileges and, on Matthias's hesitation to grant their 
demands, broke out into revolt. Anxious to detach 



CONFIRMATION OF PROTESTANT PRIVILEGES 1 69 

Hungary from this league, Matthias hastened to 
Pressburg, but there, too, the States presented to him 
a capitulation of their grievances, including a demand 
for the removal of foreigners from offices of state and 
for the full toleration of both Lutherans and Cal- 
vinists. As the condition of affairs in Austria was 
pressing and Rudolph was tampering with the in- 
surgents, Matthias was forced to concede all their 
demands, whereupon he was crowned as king, Novem- 
ber 19, 1608. Returning to Vienna he bethought him- 
self of putting down his rebellious Austrian subjects 
by force, but through the mediation of the Moravians, 
it was at last agreed that the Protestants should 
receive anew all the religious privileges and im- 
munities which they had enjoyed under the first 
Maximilian. Thereupon the states of Austria united 
in paying to Matthias a general homage, March 16, 
1609. 

Having thus re-established his authority in Austria, 
Matthias returned to Hungary partly to keep the 
turbulent spirits there quiet, and partly with a view 
to recovering the principality of Transylvania. Not 
for long, however, did Bohemia remain at rest. So 
soon as the troops had been disbanded, the Protestants 
of that country, seeing what their brethren in Austria, 
Hungary, and Moravia had gained, set about getting 
the same privileges for themselves. Accordingly, at 
the very first diet in 1609 they refused to discuss civil 
questions until freedom of religious worship had been 
granted them. To this demand the Emperor only 
made the evasive reply that he would uphold the 
ancient laws, and the diet broke up without attaining 



I70 RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 

any result. Then the Protestants implored the aid 
of Matthias and of the Protestant princes of Germany, 
and met in a diet of their own. Having there formed 
" a plan for the defence of their king and country and 
the preservation of their civil and religious rights " 
they decreed a levy of troops and appointed a per- 
manent council of thirty. At last the Emperor was 
with difficulty forced to agree to their demands, and by 
a Royal letter, of date the 5th of July, 1609, he granted 
to all members of the States full toleration of religious 
worship to the extent that had been enjoyed under 
Maximilian, with liberty to the Protestants to have 
their own churches and schools and system of church 
government. A clause was even added declaring 
null and void all future ordinances contrary to this 
act issued either by the sovereign or by his suc- 
cessors. 

This famous edict seems, nevertheless, to have met 
with evasion, for, by 1610, the discontent among the 
Protestants had so increased that preparations were 
made on a huge scale by Henry IV. of France, with 
the assistance of the United Provinces, to invade 
Germany and overthrow the Catholic cause, if not 
also the House of Austria. Henry IV. died, however, 
by the hands of an assassin, May 14, 1610, just as 
he was about to start, and this gigantic scheme then 
fell through. The Protestants only secured Alsace, 
and that they had soon to evacuate. 

Still anxious to avenge himself upon his brother, 
Rudolph now tried to transfer the crown of Bohemia 
to the Archduke Leopold, Bishop of Passau and 
Strassburg, and the latter's troops, apparently at the 



DEPOSITION OF RUDOLPH 171 

Emperor's instigation, overran Austria and Bohemia, 
producing the greatest consternation in these countries. 
Leopold had already reached Prague, when the 
States, having called in Matthias, a Hungarian army 
entered Bohemia, expelled the troops of Passau, and 
soon re-established peace. These events were soon 
followed by the formal deposition of Rudolph and the 
crowning of Matthias as his successor. On the 
transfer of authority, the States seized the opportunity 
to recover their lost rights, in particular their right to 
elect their king, and they also demanded of Matthias 
to have the sole management of matters, military and 
financial, including the right to enter into foreign 
alliances. These last demands, however, the new 
king succeeded in skilfully evading for the time. 

Rudolph made one last effort to re-establish his 
authority and sent ambassadors to the Bohemian 
States to rouse them in his favour, but these returned 
discomfited and it was then that Rudolph used those 
famous words : " Prague, ungrateful Prague, who hast 
been so highly elevated by me ; now thou spurnest 
thy benefactor ! May the curse and vengeance of 
God fall on thee and on all Bohemia ! " Deprived 
of hope, he at last signed his remission of his subjects' 
allegiance, and then in his despair blotted the docu- 
ment and tore the pen to pieces trampling it under foot. 
He received permission still to reside in the palace of 
Prague on the most favourable terms, but amid his mis- 
fortunes and distress he was abandoned by nearly all 
his friends, and he died soon afterwards in the sixtieth 
year of his age and thirty-seventh of his reign. 
Nearly his last words were : " How joyful ought I to 



172 RUDOLPH 11. AND MATTHIAS 

be when I am about to be delivered from the calami- 
ties of human nature and transferred to a heavenly 
country where there are no vicissitudes and where 
no sorrow can enter." 

On Rudolph's death several candidates were put 
forward besides Matthias for the Imperial dignity, 
including the Archduke Albrecht of the Netherlands 
and his brother Maximilian, but the latter magnani- 
mously resigning their claims, Matthias was after an 
interval of about six months duly elected. Various 
limitations were at the time imposed upon the 
Emperor, one being that the electors might choose 
a King of the Romans on their own account if the 
Emperor, on being duly requested, refused to consent 
to an election. Restrictions were also imposed upon 
the expenditure of the grants of money made by 
the diets and on the jurisdiction of the Aulic 
Council. 

Matthias's reign was of short duration, and, com- 
paratively speaking, uneventful. Internal troubles 
prevailed, and kept him constantly employed. About 
the year 16 16 he sought to invoke the German States 
against the Turks, with a view to the recovery of Tran- 
sylvania, which, despite the agreement with Botskai, 
had on the latter's death, instead of reverting to the 
House of Austria, been transmitted first to Gabriel 
Bathori, and then to Bethlem Gabor. In these 
efforts, nevertheless, he was quite unsuccessful, the 
States refusing to consider any questions unless their 
grievances were redressed. In the same year he 
endeavoured, at the instigation of Maximilian, to 
entail the succession of his dominions on Ferdinand, 



REBELLION IN BOHEMIA 1 73 

Duke of Styria, and in this, so far as Bohemia and 
Hungary were concerned, he was completely success- 
ful, Ferdinand being crowned at Prague, June 19, 
1616, with the proviso that he was not to interfere in 
the government during the lifetime of Matthias. No 
sooner was Ferdinand crowned, however, than his 
anti-Protestant spirit became manifest, and within 
three years his new subjects broke out into rebellion 
under the leadership of Count Thurn. It was none 
other than this rebellion which now led to the Thirty 
Years' War. The immediate pretext was the persecu- 
tion of the Protestants and the closing of their churches. 
A meeting of delegates had been summoned to Prague 
in 161 8, at which it was openly declared that freedom 
of worship would be impossible in Bohemia so long 
as the royal ministers, Slavata and Martinetz, were 
in power. One delegate boldly proposed to throw 
these men out of the window, according to the ancient 
custom of Bohemia, and straightway, without more 
ado, the deed was done. It was now too late to draw 
back — the die had been cast. Count Thurn rode 
through the streets inciting the citizens to arms, and 
by the month of July he was already at the head of 
10,000 men. Then, after taking Krumau by assault, 
he proceeded to Budweis, but had to leave the siege 
of that place in order to oppose the Imperial troops 
who were now advancing against him. These, how- 
ever, he defeated, first at Czaslau and then at 
Lomnitz. As Matthias experienced difficulty in 
procuring further reinforcements, owing to the indis- 
position of the States to do anything until their 
grievances were redressed, he was forced to propose 



174 



RUDOLPH II. AND MATTHIAS 



a congress of all parties, and after various delays this 
was agreed to, Eger being fixed upon as the place of 
meeting. Before this congress could assemble, how- 
ever, Matthias died, March 20, 16 19, so that these 
well-meant efforts to promote peace were frustrated. 




XIV 

FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III 
THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR 

Immediately upon his accession Ferdinand sought 
to allay the storm that then prevailed by adopting a 
conciliatory attitude, and in order to gain time he 
sent orders to his generals to endeavour to arrange a 
truce. The Protestants, on the other hand, knowing 
his purpose, did not delay an instant, and in a very 
short time their army, now joined by the Moravians, 
were at the gates of Vienna. Here Ferdinand 
courageously resolved to remain and face the worst, 
but reinforcements having descended the Danube and 
entered the city, and Count Thurn being recalled to 
Prague, which was now threatened by the Austrian 
troops under Bucquoy, he suddenly found himself 
relieved from immediate danger, and was able to 
go to Germany to secure the Imperial crown. No 
sooner, however, had he left Vienna than a general 
diet was held of the States of Bohemia, Moravia, 
Silesia, and Lusatia at Prague, at which a confede- 
racy was formed to maintain their civil and religious 

175 



1^6 FERDINAND IT. AND FERDINAND III. 

privileges, and a declaration was issued to the effect 
that Ferdinand had by his acts forfeited his Imperial 
dignity. Without delay, and with only six dissentient 
voices, they, on the 27th of August, 161 9, two days 
before Ferdinand received the Imperial crown, chose 
as their sovereign Frederick V., Elector Palatine of 
Bavaria. At the same time the Protestants of Hun- 
gary threw off their allegiance, and called to their 
aid Bethlem Gabor, the Prince of Transylvania. 
Kaschau, Tyrnau, Neutra, and other fortresses were 
seized, the Imperial army under Homonai routed, 
Pressburg occupied, and all power of resistance in 
Hungary overcome. Bethlem Gabor and Count 
Thurn then joined their forces, and at the head of 
60,000 men entered Austria, driving Bucquoy before 
them, and were soon at the gates of Vienna. 

These events soo.n recalled Ferdinand to Austria, 
but, hopeless as his cause at first appeared to be, for- 
tune favoured him. Distress and want of provisions 
prevailed in the camp of his enemies, and before 
long they were compelled by the rigour of the season 
to withdraw. Ferdinand utilised this opportunity by 
fostering disunion among his opponents, and in the 
beginning of 1620 we find him in negotiation with 
Bethlem Gabor for a truce. At the same time he 
approached Philip III. of Spain, the Pope, the King 
of Poland, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and even 
Louis XIII., and having received material assistance 
from these he now hoped to crush the Elector 
Palatine. Foremost among his allies, however, was 
the League, founded in 1609 to guard against the 
attacks of the German Union, which sent an army 




X.A.F.ZISIKA POLACEK S=- 



FERDINAND II. 



I78 FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

into Upper Austria, and produced such havoc and 
devastation that the inhabitants felt they must either 
defend themselves with force or fall prostrate at the 
Emperor's feet. The latter course was adopted, and 
the army of the League, having effected a junction 
with the Imperial troops under Bucquoy, the united 
troops were enabled to cross the Bohemian frontier 
and advance upon Budweis. A decisive battle was 
fought at the White Mountain, near Prague, on the 
8th of November, 1620, in which Frederick's Hungarian 
cavalry was instantly defeated and dispersed, this dis- 
aster being followed within an hour by the complete 
overthrow of the combined Bohemian and Moravian 
forces. Four thousand of these were left dead upon 
the field, and another thousand were driven into the 
Moldau, and that with a loss of only three hundred 
on the Imperial side. Frederick himself had to 
renounce all pretensions to the crown of Bohemia, 
and, fearing the vengeance of the Emperor, fled 
secretly and took refuge in Berlin. 

The battle of the White Mountain was of course 
followed by the re-establishment of Austrian authority 
in Bohemia, and the terrors of the 21st of January, 
1 62 1, when twenty-three leaders in the late war were 
executed, and the estates of Count Thurn and other 
chiefs confiscated for the time being, effectually 
stifled all opposition in that country. Further, 
Frederick and his adherents, the Prince of Anhalt, 
the Count of Hohenlohe, and the Duke of Jagerndorf, 
were denounced with the ban of the Empire, which 
led soon after to the members of the Protestant 
Union concluding at Mainz, April 12, 1621, a treaty 



SUCCESSES BY TILLY 1 79 

of neutrality, whereby they promised not to interfere 
in the affairs of the Palatinate, to disband their troops, 
and not to enter into any new confederacy against 
the Emperor. In the following month the Union was 
dissolved, never again to be renewed. 

The Elector Palatine, being thus deserted by the 
Union, retired to Holland. Before long, however, 
his hopes were revived by the successes of his general, 
Mansfeld, who still held Tabor and Pilsen. This 
resourceful strategist had retreated before Tilly to 
Rosskopf, near Niirnberg, and here a decisive battle 
seemed imminent, but Mansfeld, feigning a desire to 
surrender, suddenly, on the 4th of October, 162^, left 
that position, and pushed into Lower Bavaria and 
Alsace. Frederick now rejoined Mansfeld, whose 
forces had increased to over 20,000 men, and 
these leaders, crossing the Rhine, captured Sinzheim, 
Eppingen, and Ladenburg. Then, being joined by 
the Duke of Wiirttemberg, the Landgrave of Hesse, 
and other Protestant princes, preparations were made 
for entering upon hostilities on a larger scale. Tilly, 
on the other hand, was equal to the occasion, and 
having separated the Margrave of Baden from Mans- 
feld. he defeated the former at Wimpfen, May 6, 
1622, and then routed Christian of Brunswick at 
Hochst. Ultimately Mansfeld and Christian entered 
the service of the Prince of Orange and retired to the 
Netherlands. In the following year Christian returned 
to Saxony to make another effort, but he was defeated 
by Tilly at Loen, near Munster, losing 6,000 killed 
and 4,000 prisoners. 

Meanwhile in Bohemia Bethlem Gabor had broken 



l8o FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

his truce with the Emperor and assumed the title 
of king. Several battles ensued with Bucquoy, but 
the latter being killed on the ioth of July, 162 1, 
at Neuhasel, and his troops disheartened, Gabor was 
able to lay siege to Pressburg, and even to approach 
Vienna. Soon afterwards, however, he entered into 
negotiations with Ferdinand, and on the 26th of 
January, 1622, a treaty was concluded at Niclasburg, 
in Moravia, by which Gabor renounced his pretensions 
to the crown of Hungary, receiving in return seven 
provinces of Upper Hungary contiguous to Tran- 
sylvania, and the principalities of Regensburg and 
Oppelen in Silesia, and being made a prince of the 
German Empire. As for the Elector Palatine, his 
dominions were formally transferred to Maximilian, 
Duke of Bavaria. 

The English Government now instigated Sweden 
and Denmark to assist Mansfeld to reconquer 
Bavaria. In Sweden at this time Gustavus Adolphus 
was ruler, while in Denmark the helm of State was 
in the hands of Christian IV. Accordingly, in 1623, 
negotiations for this purpose were carried on, and in 
1625 Christian was at Segeburg formally chosen head 
of the Saxon league. The banks of the'Weser were 
soon the theatre of war, but the advantage lay with 
Tilly, who pushed into Hildesheim and Brunswick. 
Ferdinand's position at this time was further 
strengthened by the able Wallenstein, 1 who had 
agreed to maintain an army of 50,000 men for the 

1 Albert Wallenstein or Waldstein, of Konigingriitz, created by 
Ferdinand Duke of Friedland, and known as the ' ' adventurous son 
of fortune." 




ALLSKECHT VON WALLENSTEIN. 



1 82 FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

Emperor if he got the supreme command, and who 
had already, with 30,000 men, crossed the Elbe at 
Dessau, and plundered Grubenhagen, Halberstadt, 
and Magdeburg. At the last-mentioned town he 
was checked by Mansfeld, who, with the King of 
Denmark and Christian of Brunswick, had about 
60,000 men under their command. On August 27, 
1626, however, the Danish king was completely 
defeated by Tilly at Wolfenbuttel, driven into 
Holstein, and there kept on the defensive. As for 
Mansfeld, he succeeded in forcing his way into 
Moravia and Hungary, and was joined there by 
Bethlem Gabor of Transylvania, but disease and deser- 
tions having much reduced the number of his troops, 
and he himself dying shortly afterwards at Zara, the 
remnant of his forces was easily dispersed by Wallen- 
stein, who had simply followed after him. Austria 
being thus delivered from invasion, and the King of 
Denmark being reduced to straits, negotiations for 
peace were instituted through the mediation of the 
Duke of Mecklenburg. These, in 1629, resulted in 
a treaty whereby Christian of Denmark was handed 
back his conquered dominions, and undertook not to 
interfere again in the affairs of the Empire. It is 
remarkable that on this occasion the ambassadors 
who came from Sweden were not acknowledged or 
received. 

Ferdinand was now predominant in his dominions, 
and at once set about extirpating the Protestant 
religion there. In Austria it was practically abolished, 
and in Bohemia civil and religious liberty was so 
severely suppressed that, as a German writer has 



GUSTAVUS A DO LP H US 1 83 

remarked, the people of Bohemia lost in consequence 
all their ancient spirit, and never afterwards held a 
place as an independent nation. Of those who were 
persecuted multitudes were massacred, and any who 
escaped had to wander about the woods like wild 
beasts. On the 6th of March, 1629, the famous 
Edict of Restitution was issued, reinstating the 
Catholics in all ecclesiastical offices and benefices, 
but so fearful did the persecution of the Protestants 
now become that at the Diet of Regensburg held in 
that year even the Catholics recoiled from their 
Emperor's enormities and joined in demanding the 
suspension of the Edict, the dismissal of Wallenstein, 
and the disbandment of the army. To all these 
demands Ferdinand had to assent, and, being further 
disappointed in not getting his son elected King of 
the Romans, he broke up this diet in disgust. 

A new enemy now engaged Ferdinand's attention. 
Gustavus Adolphus, bent upon rescuing his Protes- 
tant brethren in Germany, assembled a large fleet at 
Elfsnaben, and on the 24th of June, 1630, landed 
a force of 15,000 men at Ruden. Before long he was 
in possession of Stettin, capital of Pomerania. He 
also materially strengthened his position by an 
alliance with France (January 13, 1631). The Ger- 
man Emperor did not at first actively oppose his pro- 
gress, but contented himself with sending a threaten- 
ing message. This only called forth the contemptuous 
reply that Gustavus would despatch an answer as 
soon as he had recovered from a wound inflicted by 
an eagle, probably referring to the insult offered to 
his ambassadors in 1629. Then at length Tilly took 



184 FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

command of the Imperial forces and laid siege to 
Magdeburg. This place, owing to the small forces 
at his command, Gustavus was unable to succour. 
It fell on the 10th of May, 1631, and its capture 
was followed by the most dreadful scenes of mas- 
sacre and incendiarism. Only the cathedral, a con- 
vent, and some wretched huts remained of what 
was before the most flourishing city in Germany. 
Tilly himself in his barbarous exultation compared 
his achievement to the sack of Troy and Jerusalem. 
All the efforts, however, of the Imperial troops to 
recover Pomerania were in vain. 

The Elector of Brandenburg had contributed 
greatly to the fall of Magdeburg by refusing to 
Gustavus a passage through his territories. Treating 
him as an enemy, accordingly, the Swedish king 
appeared on the nth of June, 163 1, before the walls 
of Berlin and obtained the surrender of Spandau, 
Brandenburg, and Rathenau. Then, pushing along 
the Elbe, he threatened Magdeburg. Tilly was 
repulsed and turned against the Elector of Saxony, 
who at once assembled his troops at Torgau and 
concluded an alliance with Gustavus. The latter had 
also been joined by reinforcements of 8,000 Swedes 
and 6,000 English under the Marquis of Hamilton. 
The allied forces at once marched upon Leipzig, and 
here, on the 7th of September, 163 1, a battle was 
fought in which the Imperial army was totally 
routed, 7,000 Austrians being left upon the field and 
5,000 being captured along with all the baggage and 
artillery. On the Swedish side 700 were killed, and 
of the Saxons, 2,000. Tilly himself was surrounded 



1 86 FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

by the enemy and only escaped with difficulty. Gus- 
tavus now made rapid progress along the Maine and 
the Rhine, and the Elector of Saxony achieved the 
conquest of Bohemia. Meanwhile Tilly busied himself 
with rallying his forces, and in March, 1632, we find 
him marching upon Schweinfurth on the Maine. 
Compelled by the approach of Gustavus to retire, he 
fell back first upon Erlangen and then to a position 
behind the Lech, but even from this last he was 
driven towards Ingolstadt. He himself was mortally 
wounded in the fray. Augsburg next fell into the 
hands of Gustavus, who re-established the Protestant 
religion there, but Ingolstadt successfully held out 
and showed the Swedish monarch that he was not 
yet invincible. 

Ferdinand's position was a critical one, and in his 
desperation he would have himself taken the field. 
Wisely advised, nevertheless, he had recourse to 
Wallenstein, whose dismissal he had learned to regret, 
and under this general's auspices a new army was 
rapidly formed. Aware that many of the Protestants 
had become jealous of Gustavus's power, Wallenstein 
approached the Elector of Saxony with the view of 
detaching him from his alliance with the Swedes. 
Baffled, however, in this endeavour he marched his 
army into Bohemia, made Prague surrender and 
expelled the Saxons from all their posts. Being now 
joined by the Bavarians, the united forces amounting 
to 60,000 men, Wallenstein set out to meet Gustavus, 
boastfully declaring that the result would show 
whether he or the Swedish king was to command the 
world. For eight weeks he faced his antagonist, 



BATTLE OF LUT/.EX 1 87 

unwilling to risk a battle, after which at last Gustavus 
led his own troops to the attack. Wallenstein was too 
strongly posted, and after a loss of 3,000 of his best 
troops, Gustavus had to retire. Finally, the Swedes 
withdrew, having lost about 20,000 men by famine, 
hardship, and sickness, and Wallenstein marched back 
with about half his force, that having been reduced 
through the same causes. Wallenstein then attacked 
the Elector of Saxony, but Gustavus, going to the 
assistance of his ally, came up with the Imperial 
forces at Ltitzen, a town between Leipzig and Weis- 
zenfels, where on the 16th of November, 1632, a 
decisive battle was fought, in the course of which 
the Swedish king was mortally wounded, but which 
ended in the total defeat of the Imperialists. Not 
long after, Frederick of Bavaria, to a great extent 
the cause of the long struggle, died. 

The deaths of Gustavus Adolphus and Frederick 
of Bavaria led to a suspension of hostilities, during 
which Ferdinand was able to recover much of his 
lost authority. This very state of peace, however, 
soon led to the fall of Wallenstein, whose haughty 
manners had made him many enemies. Suspicions 
were aroused in the Emperor that his general 
meditated designs to deprive him of his throne, and 
thereupon he was relieved of his office. Wallen- 
stein, from motives of revenge, sought to enlist the 
services of the Swedes and Saxons, but on the 25th 
of February, 1634, he was assassinated at Eger by 
a party led by one Gordon, a native of Scotland. 
Gordon received the confiscated estates of Terzky, and 
others of the conspirators also got richly rewarded. 



1 88 FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

The Emperor's son Ferdinand, who in 1625 had 
been elected King of Hungary, now became Com- 




HOROSCOPE OF WALLENSTEIN. 1 

. (From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy " by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 

mander-in-chief of the Imperial forces. Taking the 

1 Wallenstein harboured a fatalistic belief in mysterious supernatural 
powers. This accounts for his life-long intimacy with the Italian 
astrologer Seni, whose imaginary predictions became fixed prin- 
ciples in Wallenstein's mind, and probably influenced his conduct in 
the direction of an inordinate personal ambition. The drawing in the 
text represents Wallenstein's horoscope as drawn up for him by Seni. 
Wallenstein was consulting the astrologer on the very night he was 
murdered. 



PEACE OF HEILBRONN 1 89 

field without delay, he advanced rapidly towards the 
Danube, crossed that river with 30,000 men and laid 
siege to Regensburg. This town fell on the 26th of 
July, 1634. Proceeding along the Danube he took 
Donauwerth by storm and invested Nordlingen. 
There on the advance of the Swedes he repelled all 
their attacks and finally on the 6th of September, 
1634, gained a complete victory over them, inflicting 
upon them a loss of 8,000 killed and 4,000 prisoners. 
Next day Nordlingen surrendered. The Protestant 
league in consternation now invoked the aid of France, 
and at Heilbronn on the nth of March, 1635, was 
concluded that treaty which put German interests into 
the hands of France and enabled the latter power 
to dictate to Europe as the Empire previously had 
done. Meanwhile the Emperor pursued his success, 
and at Prague preliminaries of peace were signed on 
the 30th of May, 1635, according to which a general 
amnesty was to be granted and all conquests since 
the landing of Gustavus Adolphus restored. Next 
year rumours that the French king had designs upon 
the Imperial throne so alarmed the diet that the King 
of Hungary was duly elected King of the Romans, 
almost immediately after which happy event, on the 
15th of February, 1637, Ferdinand II. died in the 
fifty-ninth year of his age. 

The accession of Ferdinand III., however, was not 
destined to reduce Germany all of a sudden to 
quietude and for many years the war was continued 
with varying success. In the north at first the ad- 
vantage lay with the Imperial troops, but in other 
quarters disasters occurred, including the loss of 



I9O FERDINAND II. AND FERDINAND III. 

x^lsace to Duke Bernhard of Weimar in 1638. Austrian 
influence became further diminished by the defection 
of the Duke of Brunswick and the influence of the 
new Elector Frederick William of Brandenburg, who 
already at the age of eighteen began to display those 
characteristics which afterwards promoted the great- 
ness of his house. Nevertheless in 1640, the Austrians 
and Bohemia succeeded in expelling the Swedes 
from Silesia. In the following year, however, the 
latter under General Banner came down upon Aus- 
tria suddenly from the north and threatened Regens- 
burg where a diet was sitting, but Ferdinand en- 
couraged his subjects with his firm behaviour and 
compelled his enemies to retire. His men even 
followed them into Saxony. In 1642, attacks of the 
Swedes again occurred under Torstenson, and on the 
2nd of November of that year a battle was fought at 
Breitenfeld in which the Imperial troops were totally 
defeated with a loss of 10,000 killed and prisoners. 
Leipzig thereupon surrendered to the Swedes, who 
spread the terror of their name to the gates of Vienna 
itself. 

Ferdinand was now in the utmost straits, but, 
undaunted by disaster, he set about enlisting the 
assistance of Denmark. Torstenson was too quick, 
however, and before Christian IV. could cross his 
frontier, the Swedes were back in Holstein and in 
possession of the peninsula, th<: Imperial army that 
was sent there to support the King of Denmark being 
cut to pieces in an attempt to break through the 
Swedish lines. Having thus ruined Ferdinand's 
plans in that quarter, Torstenson returned to Bohe- 




FERDINAND III. 



192 FERDINAND H. AND FERDINAND III. 

mia, and there a battle was fought at Yankovitz on 
the 1 6th of March, 1645, * n which the Imperialists 
were again defeated, this time with the loss of 8,000 
men. All Moravia now submitted, and before long 
the Swedes were down on the Danube and attacking 
Vienna. Meanwhile the power of France had also 
been extending along the Rhine. Nothing daunted, 
however, by his increasing perils, Ferdinand rallied 
his supporters, and not only saved Vienna but drove 
the Swedes out of Bohemia. Seizing this opportunity, 
he, on the 4th of August, 1646, induced the States to 
give the crown of Bohemia to his son Ferdinand, and 
on the 16th of July of the following year he got the 
same prince crowned King of Hungary at Pressburg. 
The last event of importance in this long, desultory 
struggle was the attempted capture of Prague by the 
Swedes under Konigsmark. So far as the little town 
was concerned, this assault succeeded, but the burghers 
of the old town held out bravely, until the armistice 
of the 25th of October, 1648, relieved them. On 
November 3rd, followed the news of the peace of 
Westphalia, and thus the Thirty Years' War came to 
an end with a struggle in the very city which had 
initiated it with the throwing from the windows. 

The peace of Westphalia was concluded on the 
24th of October, 1648. The general result was that 
the distribution of territories prevailing in 1624 
was restored ; the son of the Elector Palatine re- 
covered the Lower Palatinate, and the Upper Pala- 
tinate went to Bavaria. Part of Alsace, nevertheless, 
was left with France and Western Pomerania, 
Bremen and Verden fell to Sweden. The indepen- 



DEATH OF THE ARCHDUKE FERDINAND. 1 93 

dence of Holland and Switzerland was also recog- 
nised. As for the Protestants, henceforth they were 
to enjoy religious toleration and freedom. 

It was not till the close of 165 1 that all the com- 
plicated arrangements under the peace of Westphalia, 
could be completed. At last, in 1652, the Emperor 
summoned a diet to Regensburg to confirm the peace. 
At this he proposed that the Archduke Ferdinand 
should be elected King of the Romans, and to the 
astonishment of every one this proposition received 
unanimous consent. Ferdinand's joy, however, at 
securing this coveted honour for his son was of short 
duration for, not very long after the diet rose, the 
young prince died of small-pox on the 9th of July, 
1654. There was no other course open, therefore, 
than to seek the same honours for his second son 
Leopold, and for him he succeeded in procuring the 
homage of Austria and the crowns of Bohemia and 
Hungary. The interference of France, on the other 
hand, led to Leopold's exclusion from the Imperial 
dignity. 

Towards the close of Ferdinand's reign the successes 
of Charles Gustavus of Sweden in his war against 
Poland, which threatened to disturb the balance of 
power in the north, led to the Emperor entering into 
negotiations with the king of Denmark and the 
Elector of Brandenburg for an offensive and de- 
fensive alliance. This was duly concluded, but just 
as his army was preparing to march to the north, 
Ferdinand III. died on the 3rd of March, 1657. 



14 



XV 



LEOPOLD I. (THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH I. 



THE WAR OF THE SPANISH SUCCESSION 



Leopold was only seventeen at the time of his 
father's death, and he was for that reason placed 
at first under the guardianship of his uncle of 
the same name. Efforts were straightway made, 
however, to secure for him the Imperial crown. 
The great opponent of the House of Austria in 
this matter was Cardinal Mazarin, who sought to 
retain for France the predominant influence in 
Europe which she had won by bringing about the 
Peace of Westphalia. Mazarin tried to support first 
Louis XIV. and then Ferdinand Maria of Bavaria, 
but to each of these strong objection was made. 
Then, on the King of Sweden recommending the 
Prince Palatine of Neuburg, the French Minister as 
a last resource offered the crown to the Archduke 
Leopold, who, thereupon, at once recommended his 
young nephew to the electors. Leopold was accord- 
ingly unanimously chosen and was crowned at Frank- 
furt on the Maine, July 31, 1657. 

194 



LEAGUE OF THE RHINE. 1 95 

Soon afterwards, on the 14th of August, 1658, a 
powerful combination was formed by the King of 
Sweden, the three ecclesiastical electors, the Bishop of 
Miinster, the Count Palatine of Neuburg, and the 
Landgrave of Hesse, which received the name of the 
League of the Rhine. This league became even more 
powerful by the accession of France, and effectually 
prevented Leopold from waging war in the German 
territories still possessed by Sweden. Nevertheless, he 
incited the Danes and Dutch to combine against his 
northern foe, the King of Sweden, and himself sent an 
army of 16,000 men into Poland, which took Cracow 
and Posen. As for the Danes, their movement was an 
unfortunate one, and being driven from Bremen and 
Verden, which they had captured, and the Swedes 
penetrating into Holstein as far as Jutland, their king 
was soon compelled to sue for peace. The same 
year, however, the Austrians and Poles in conjunction 
with the Elector of Brandenburg entered Jutland and 
drove the Swedes to Fredericsodde, which place next 
year they took by assault. At Nyborg, moreover, a 
battle was fought in which the Swedes were totally 
defeated, and the Swedish fleet having also in the 
meantime been dispersed, the peace of Oliva was 
gladly agreed to in 1660. Spain and France had 
already in the previous year come to an under- 
standing by concluding the peace of the Pyrenees. 

Just at this moment, nevertheless, when peace had 
been arranged in the north and south, fresh troubles 
broke out in the east. On the 17th of May, 1660, 
Ragotsky, Prince of Transylvania, was killed in a 
battle with the Turks, and these having set up Bartzai 



I96 LEOPOLD I. [THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH I. 

as his successor, a revolt took place headed by 
Kemeny, who got himself elected, and called in 
Leopold. With Leopold's assistance, Kemeny was 
able for a time to hold his own, but he was killed 
in a skirmish with the Turks on the 23rd of 
January, 1662. Abaffy then took over the nominal 
sovereignty. In 1663, however, a Turkish army 
of 100,000 men burst into Hungary, crossed the 
Danube at Buda, and even threatened Vienna. A 
diet having been hastily summoned to Regensburg, 
aids were granted, and the Austrian frontiers above 
the Danube made secure. Without stopping to 
take the Austrian fortresses, the Grand Vizier 
and his Janissaries, in the following year, invaded 
Styria ; but here, near the St. Gothard, the combined 
German forces under Montecuculli met them on the 1st 
of August, 1664, and they were defeated with a loss of 
8,000 men. This was followed by an arrangement 
for a twenty years' truce, Transylvania being con- 
firmed to Abaffy and declared to be an independent 
state. Hungary still gave some trouble owing to the 
turbulent nobility there, but Leopold's power was 
further increased by his succession to the Tyrol and 
other external provinces. 

Let us now follow the events that led to the 
War of the Spanish Succession. In December, 
1666, Leopold married the second Infanta of Spain, 
Margaret Theresia, daughter of Philip IV. Louis 
XIV., who had married the first Infanta, then laid 
claim to the Netherlands, and in 1667 poured his troops 
into the Low Countries, meeting with little resistance 
there. The Court of Spain appealed ineffectually to 



PEACE OF NIJMEGEN. 197 

the German Diet, and Leopold amid his own embar- 
rassments, was forced to remain neutral. The peace 
of Breda followed, which gave Louis a firm hold in 
the Southern Netherlands, but as the French aimed at 
obtaining the whole country, a pretext was, in 1671, 
found for renewing the struggle. It was about this time 
that William, Prince of Orange, became Stadtholder ot 
the five provinces, and under his energetic care, the 
Dutch army was re-organised and an alliance concluded 
between the Emperor, the Elector of Brandenburg, 
and the States. From this combination the Elector 
soon seceded, but Leopold having got assistance from 
Spain, two armies were soon in the field, one of 1 8,000 
men in the Netherlands, and another of 30,000 men 
under Montecuculli on the Maine. Turenne was 
driven out of Franconia, and Bonn captured. The 
Netherlands were then evacuated by the French, and 
for the next two years the war was chiefly confined 
to the province of Alsace and the Rhine. In 1675, 
however, the Swedes co-operated with France and 
made a diversion to the north, the French then re- 
covering their ascendancy on the Rhine, and finishing 
up their campaign by capturing Freiburg on the 14th 
of November, 1677. Two years later the French suc- 
ceeded, despite all the efforts of the Prince of Orange, 
and to the consternation of the other allies, in gaining 
over the Dutch, and on the 10th of August, 1678, the 
peace of Nijmegen was concluded between Leopold 
on the one side and France and Sweden on the other, 
which left matters pretty much as they were at the 
peace of Westphalia. 

The peace of Nijmegen proved to be only a tern- 



I98 LEOPOLD I. {THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH I. 

porary truce. Louis almost immediately set about 
inciting the towns and nobility of Alsace to sever 
their connection with the Empire, and Leopold's re- 
monstrances were left unheeded. In vain, too, did the 
German Emperor invoke the aid of the other powers, 
for Louis detached Denmark, secured the neutrality 
of Great Britain, and gained over the Elector of 
Brandenburg to his side. The French even fomented 
rebellions in Hungary and urged the Turks to invade 
Austria. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, 1684, 
Leopold was compelled by necessity to conclude a 
truce at Regensburg with Louis, by which the latter 
retained Luxemburg, Bouvines, and other places in the 
Netherlands, together with Strassburg and the pre- 
dominant control in Alsace. Never was French power 
more predominant than now, never were the French 
army and finances in a better condition. Still, there 
were circumstances which tended to weaken Louis' 
position. In Great Britain, James II. was at enmity 
with his subjects ; in Holland, William of Orange had 
become the recognised champion of the Protestant 
cause in Europe, and Louis XIV. had by his 
haughty demeanour alienated in Germany the Elector 
of Brandenburg and other friendly princes. 

Matters were in this position in 1685, when the 
question of the succession to the Palatinate and the 
respective rights of the lines of Neuburg and Weldentz 
became of burning importance. On Philip William 
of Neuburg being chosen, Louis supported the pre- 
tensions of the Duchess of Orleans, sister of the last 
Elector. This led, on the 21st of June, 1686, to the 
celebrated League of Augsburg between Leopold, the 



WAR WITH FRANCE. 199 

King of Sweden and the chiefs of the Empire, to 
resist the aggressions of France. To nip this com- 
bination in the bud, if possible, Louis sent in 1687 an 
army of 80,000 men into the Palatinate, and before 
the end of the year he was in possession of Philips- 
burg, Speier, Worms, Trier, and other fortresses on 
the Rhine. Leopold was at the time powerless to 
interfere, as he was engaged with the Turks, and he 
merely dismissed the French ambassadors from 
Vienna and Regensburg. William of Orange had, 
however, effected the revolution in England, and now 
joined the League of Augsburg. War was accord- 
ingly declared against France, and Louis's forces were 
recalled from the Palatinate for home defence. Before 
long, Cologne was captured and Trier recovered from 
the French. The whole of Europe seemed to combine 
to overwhelm Louis. First, Frederick of Brandenburg 
ioined the Austrian party, and then nearly every other 
country in Europe, the chief exceptions being Russia, 
Portugal, and a few Italian States. Notwithstanding 
the heavy odds, however, and though he failed to rein- 
state James II. on the throne of Great Britain, and 
lost, in 1692, his naval supremacy at La Hogue, Louis 
continued to maintain himself against his foes, whose 
internal dissensions prevented any decided success. 
Finally, on the 9th of May, 1697, the Peace of 
Rijswijk was signed between France and Great 
Britain and Holland, and to this, too, Germany had 
soon to assent. 

It will be necessary here, to revert shortly to the 
events in the eastern portion of his Empire, which so 
effectually prevented active interference on Leopold's 



20O LEOPOLD I. {THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH l. 

part with France. For many years Hungary was in 
a troubled state, and numerous were the conspiracies 
to throw off the Austrian yoke. To keep the people 
in subjection Leopold had established military govern- 
ment in the country, besides abrogating the privileges 




MEDAL OF THE HOLY LEAGUE OF 1684. 

{From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy " by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 

of its people, and making the monarchy hereditary 
like that of Bohemia. The insurgent party in despair 
called in the Prince of Transylvania, and at his insti- 
gation Tekeli led, in 1678, an army of 20,000 men 
into Hungary, which ravaged the country as far as 



JOHN SOBIESKI. 201 

Moravia and Austria and Styria. In 1681, Leopold 
came to terms with Tekeli and published a general 
amnesty, but next year the insurgent leader resumed 
the offensive and got himself proclaimed Prince of 
Upper Hungary. At this time, the Turks also were 
threatening, and 200,000 of them, in fact, attacked and 
besieged Vienna in 1683. Failing to get sufficient 
help from the German Diet, Leopold invoked the assis- 
tance of John Sobieski, King of Poland, who, with the 
Duke of Lothringen, soon compelled the invaders to 
raise the siege. The latter, suddenly withdrawing by 
night, left their camp replete with all the luxuries of 
the east behind, including a standard that was sup- 
posed to be the sacred banner of Mahomet and 180 
pieces of artillery. So rich was the booty that fell to 
the Polish and Austrian forces, that Sobieski wrote to 
his wife : " When I return I shall not be met with the 
reproach of the Tartar wives : ' You are not a man 
because you are come back without booty.' " On his 
entry into Vienna, the inhabitants hailed the King of 
Poland as their Father and Deliverer, struggled to 
kiss his hands and feet and otherwise testified their 
gratitude. Without delay, however, Sobieski pursued 
the Turks, completely defeated them on the Danube, 
and drove them into Belgrade. The Austrians, too, 
redeemed the glory of their arms at the battle of 
Mohacz, on the 12th of August, 1687, when the Duke 
of Lothringen at a sacrifice of only 600 men, destroyed 
over 20,000 of the enemy. 

The Hungarians were now compelled to entreat 
the Emperor's clemency, and the latter at once 
declared the monarchy to be hereditary, and induced 



202 LEOPOLD I. (THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH I. 

the States to crown his son Joseph, then a mere 
boy, as their king, which was done on the 9th of 
December, 1687, with great pomp and magnificence. 
Two years subsequently, on the 4th of January, 1690, 
Joseph was also unanimously elected King of the 
Romans. Just when peace in Hungary seemed 
secured, however, Louis again diverted the attention 
of the Austrians, and Semendria, Widdin, and 
Belgrade, which had been taken from the Turks, 
again fell into their hands, along with the provinces 
beyond the Danube. Tekeli, too, appeared once 
more in Transylvania, which had renounced alle- 
giance to the Turks, and declaring himself prince, 
extorted the homage of the States. But in Tran- 
sylvania Abaffy soon re-established his authority, 
and though the Turks sent in 1691 an army 
of 100,000 men into Hungary, the Imperialists 
gained the splendid victory of Szalankamen, when 
20,000 Turks were left on the field. For the next 
few years the war continued in a desultory fashion, 
but in 1697 Leopold was enabled to make larger 
preparations. Accordingly, when in that year the 
Sultan himself led the Turks across the Danube and 
up the Theiss, the Austrians under Prince Eugene of 
Savoy met them so impetuously that they fled in 
confusion leaving 10,000 dead on the field and 
multitudes drowned in the river. Of 30,000 who 
crossed the Theiss not 1,000 are said to have sur- 
vived. This victory was gained in less than two 
hours, just before the close of day, which led to the 
brave Austrian commander remarking : " The sun 
seemed to linger on the horizon to gild with its last 



PEACE OF CARLOVITZ. 203 

rays the victorious standards of Austria." As a result 
of it, Eugene entered Bosnia, afterwards returning to 
Vienna laden with booty, only to receive reproof 
there for having, contrary to orders, engaged in a 
pitched battle. About the same time the Venetians 
conquered Morea and Dalmatia ; and Russia, too, 
pressed hard upon the Turks from the north. The 
latter, therefore, were glad to open up negotiations, 
and the Emperor received Transylvania, all Hungary 
north of the Marosch and west of the Theiss, together 
with all Slavonia except a small district near Belgrade. 
This was by the peace of Carlovitz, November 14, 
1697, memorable in the history of the House of 
Austria for the gain from the Turks of nearly half 
their late possessions in Europe.. 

The peace of Rijswijk was, as we have seen, 
practically extorted from Leopold, and by no means 
settled the question of the succession to the crown of 
Spain, which the Emperor had been brought up from 
infancy to regard as his inheritance. Louis deemed 
himself to have the prior right owing to his marriage 
with the eldest Infanta, and claimed the succession 
for the Dauphin of France ; and besides Leopold 
there was a third claimant in Joseph Ferdinand, son 
of Maximilian of Bavaria and Maria Antonia, only 
daughter of Leopold by his wife, the second Infanta 
of Spain. Charles II., the last male of the Spanish 
branch, was a weak and vacillating monarch, and did 
not know what course to take with regard to the 
intrigues with which he was beset. He hated the 
Bourbons and yet held aloof from Leopold, so that 
when in 1698 the first partition treaty was entered 



204 LEOPOLD I. {THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH 1. 

into between Louis XIV., William of Great Britain, 
and the United Provinces, by which Spain, the Nether- 
lands and their colonies were to go to the Prince of 
Bavaria, Milan to the Archduke Charles, and Naples 
and the Two Sicilies to the Dauphin, he immediately 
made a will appointing the Bavarian prince as his 
successor. Upon this the French redoubled their 
exertions, military preparations were commenced on 
a large scale, and when Charles appealed to Pope 
Innocent XI L, he was told to make the Dauphin his 
heir. Finally, the electoral prince having died in 
1699, Charles made another will, this time in favour 
of the Duke of Anjou. Charles died soon afterwards 
on the 1st of November, 1700. 

The Duke of Anjou, under the title of Philip V. 
was at once acknowledged at Paris, and setting out 
for Spain without delay was duly proclaimed at 
Madrid on the 24th of November, 1700. Soon the 
Austrian party was completely silenced and Philip 
acknowledged as lawful monarch by all the powers 
except Austria 

Not daunted by his isolation Leopold prepared to 
assert his rights by force of arms, and in 1701 Eugene 
of Savoy invaded Italy, and after a brilliant cam- 
paign, drove the French behind the Mincio. This 
event was followed by the repulse of the reinforce- 
ments which Louis sent under Villeroy, and the 
capture of Mantua. These successes seem to have 
tended to enlist the other European Powers in 
Leopold's favour, and shortly before his death even 
William had veered round to the Austrian side. 
Accordingly when Anne ascended the British throne, 



MARLBOROUGH'S CAMPAIGNS. 205 

the Duke of Marlborough at once proceeded to 
Holland and revived the drooping spirits of the 
States. Leopold also won over the Elector of 
Brandenburg and other German princes, and on the 
15th of May, 1702, hostilities were declared against 
France simultaneously from London, Vienna, and 
the Hague. 

Campaigns followed in the Netherlands, Italy, and 
Germany. Marlborough in the north assumed the 
supreme command, and took the fortresses on the 
Meuse, while the Landgrave of Baden drove the 
French under Villars back across the Rhine. Next 
year Leopold and Joseph both renounced their pre- 
tensions in favour of Charles, Leopold's second son, 
thus gaining the King of Portugal to their side, and 
Charles was in fact solemnly proclaimed King of 
Spain at Vienna in September, 1703, under the title 
of Charles III., passing soon after through Holland 
to England, and proceeding thence on board one of 
Sir George Rooke's vessels to Lisbon. While these 
events were proceeding Villars in conjunction with 
the Elector of Bavaria penetrated as far as the Tyrol, 
and having captured Passau and Vendome in Italy 
managed to keep the Imperialists there in check. 
But in 1704, Marlborough and Eugene, having 
effected a junction, marched rapidly south and in- 
flicted a crushing defeat upon the French at Blenheim, 
driving them back into their own country. Two 
years later, the victory at Ramilies caused the French 
to abandon the Netherlands, and about the same 
time Eugene of Savoy expelled them from Northern 
Italy. Meanwhile Gibraltar had been captured by 



206 LEOPOLD I. {THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH I. 

the British in 1704, and in December of the same 
year the Austrians completely defeated the Hun- 
garian insurgents under Ragotsky, who had been 
incited by the French to attack Vienna. Just, how- 
ever, as a better day seemed to be dawning for 
Austria, and when the allies were preparing to follow 
up their successes with vigour, Leopold died (1705) 
in the sixty-fifth year of his age and thirty-eighth of 
his reign, the longest in Austrian annals after that of 
Frederick III. 

Leopold's son and successor, Joseph, was a much 
stronger man physically than his father, and early 
gave signs of being a capable administrator and a 
brave soldier. Though only twenty-five when he 
ascended the throne, he without delay set about 
reducing the expenses of his court and relieving his 
people by practising economy in the civil and 
military departments. So engaged, indeed, does he 
appear to have been with internal affairs at the 
beginning of his reign, that we do not find much 
interference on his part in the campaigns of the 
allies. After the battle of Ramilies, he seems to 
have inclined more and more towards peace, and 
certain it is that when Charles XII. of Sweden in- 
vaded Poland and Saxony, and despite the remon- 
strances of the Emperor, settled affairs in these 
countries in his own way, Joseph prevented his diet 
from declaring war. Accordingly when — the French 
in Italy having been routed before Turin by Eugene 
of Savoy, and Spain having been successfully hemmed 
in by Charles and the British in conjunction with the 
King of Portugal — Louis felt constrained to listen to 




AUSTRIAN INFANTRY. 
(17Q4-I7IO.) 



208 LEOPOLD I. {THE GREAT) AND JOSEPH 1. 

terms, Joseph at once agreed to a treaty of neutrality 
for Italy, under which the French and Spanish 
quitted that country. This occurred in the beginning 
of 1707. The allies considered this agreement to be 
injudicious, for it released a large force which must 
ultimately have surrendered, but as they desired to 
humble Louis still more, they reluctantly gave it 
their consent rather than break up the confederacy. 
The war, therefore, was continued, but the allies, 
chiefly British, Dutch, and Portuguese, were badly 
beaten by the French under the Duke of Berwick at 
Almanza in 1707. In the following year, however, 
this event was counterbalanced by the battle of 
Oudenarde, the result of which was to frustrate an 
attempt on the part of the Dukes of Vendome and 
Burgundy to reconquer the Spanish Netherlands, and 
in 1709 Marlborough and Eugene also defeated the 
hitherto invincible Villars at Malplaquet. 

The French having been thus successfully expelled 
from Germany and Italy, Joseph was in a position to 
put matters in his own dominions on a more certain 
basis as well as to reward his adherents. By a 
decree of the Aulic Council at Vienna, the electors 
of Cologne and Bavaria had been deprived of their 
dignities and possessions, and a fifth electorate was 
now formed under the Elector Palatine. At the 
same time Bohemia had restored to it all its electoral 
rights and franchises. Further, in Italy Joseph 
appropriated Mantua and Mirandola, conferring these 
territories on the Dukes of Savoy and Modena ; and, 
notwithstanding the threats of Pope Clement XL, he 
even confiscated some of the papal revenues. 



PACIFICATION OF HUNGARY. 200, 

Joseph's great work, nevertheless, was the pacifica- 
tion of Hungary. Immediately on his accession he 
had tried to gain the affections of the people by 
promising to redress their grievances and by con- 
firming their privileges. The Hungarian insurgents, 
however, refused him their allegiance, and continued 
to hold by Ragotsky, whom they styled their dux or 
leader. For this general they now asked of Joseph 
the cession of Transylvania, insisting also upon the 
abolition of the hereditary sovereignty and the con- 
firmation of various civil and religious immunities. 
Anxious though he was to be able to turn his un- 
divided attention to France, and notwithstanding the 
advice of a considerable number of those around him, 
Joseph felt he must refuse terms so degrading. 
Accordingly in 1705 collecting a force, he crossed the 
Danube, raised the blockade of Great Waradin and 
entered Transylvania. He reduced the whole country 
and completely re-established the authority of the 
Austrian Government. On his withdrawal, however, 
Ragotsky once more returned to Hungary, held an 
open air diet at Onod, at which Joseph was declared 
a tyrant and usurper, and denounced as enemies of 
the Hungarians all who would not join their con- 
federacy. Thereupon Joseph declared these pro- 
ceedings null, and in 1708 convened an opposition 
diet at Pressburg, following that up with another 
expedition against the insurgents. These, on the 
17th of August of the last-mentioned year, he suc- 
ceeded in totally defeating, Ragotsky himself escaping 
with difficulty. The Emperor now offered very 
lenient terms to the leaders of the rebellion if they 

15 



210 LEOPOLD I. (THE GREAT) AND- JOSEPH I. 

would come in without delay, and a convention was 
finally concluded in January, 171 1, which declared 
inter alia a general amnesty, a restitution of con- 
fiscated property, and freedom to exercise the 
Protestant religion. 

Previous to the battle of Malplaquet, Louis XIV. 
had constantly flattered himself with the hope that he 
might yet succeed in sowing dissensions among the 
allies, and so be able to subdue them one by one. 
Now, however, that recent defeat and the general 
desire for peace which prevailed in France prompted 
him once more to endeavour to come to terms with 
his enemies. Accordingly he made various offers, 
including even the retrocession of Alsace, but as he 
could not undertake that Spain would be evacuated, 
negotiations were broken off, and the war continued, 
though in a much more leisurely fashion than before. 
The only events of importance at this time were the 
capture by the allies of the towns of Douay, Bethune, 
and St. Venant. Meanwhile, in Spain, Charles was 
still in Catalonia while the allied British and Portu- 
guese forces were on the other side before Badajoz. 
Taking the offensive Charles, in 17 10, defeated Philip, 
first at Almanza and a month later at Saragossa, 
after which for a time he actually took up his resi- 
dence in Madrid. Philip, nevertheless, soon re- 
acquired his ascendancy, and, being joined by Ven- 
dome, forced Charles to retire once more to 
Catalonia. 

Such was the state of matters abroad when on the 
17th of April, 171 1, Joseph died suddenly of small- 
pox in the thirty-third year of his age and sixth 



ACCESSION OF CHARLES VI. 



211 



of his reign. His death completely altered the 
political situation. Charles succeeded to the Aus- 
trian dominions, and though Joseph left two daughters, 
Maria Josepha and Maria Amelia, these were after- 
wards, on their respective marriages, obliged to re- 
nounce all claims to the Austrian succession in favour 
of their uncle's daughters. But for this circumstance 
they would, in conformity with a compact made in 
the reign of Leopold, on failure of Charles's male 
issue, have ultimately succeeded by preference to the 
Austrian dominions. 




XVI 

CHARLES VI 

ATTACKS BY THE TURKS 

CHARLES was still in Spain when his brother's 
death thus opened up to him not only the Austrian 
succession but also the Imperial crown. He was at 
once proclaimed King of Hungary and Bohemia and 
Archduke 'of Austria, and at the same time every 
effort was made to secure him the Imperial crown. 
Without awaiting his master's arrival Eugene set the 
States in motion, and Charles, who had embarked at 
Barcelona for Genoa, had got no farther than Milan 
when he heard of his election. Proceeding to Frank- 
furt he was crowned there on the 22nd of December, 
171 1. Then he set out for Vienna. Wherever he 
went he was hailed with acclamation, and people 
seemed to regard his advent as foreboding an early 
return of peace. His manners, too, were pleasing, 
and he conciliated all. Even with regard to the 
religious question he said to the Catholics : " Although 
I approve your zeal, and am ready to defend the 
Church of Rome at the peril of my life, yet justice, 



PEACE OF UTRECHT. 2 I 3 

policy, and my own interest require that I should 
not leave my Protestant subjects without a ray of 
consolation." 

The war with France Charles wished still to prose- 
cute with vigour, and it was long before he saw that 
his accession to power in Germany had produced a 
change in the sentiments of his allies with regard to 
the Spanish succession. As he had risen France had 
fallen, and some degree of pity for the humbled 
monarch intensified the general desire for peace. 
Great Britain, however, it was that definitely turned 
the tide of events. Anne had gradually veered round 
somewhat to the side of the Pretender, her brother, 
and the Whigs had been supplanted by Harley and 
the Tories. The new ministry, with the support of 
the Queen, at once began to intrigue with France. 
The result was that hostilities began to be carried 
on with less vigour, and on the 8th of October, 
171 1, preliminaries of peace were signed at London, 
by which Louis agreed that France and Spain 
should never be united under one head. Charles 
tried to prevent these being ratified, and sent Prince 
Eugene to London, but the latter, after being 
publicly insulted by the populace and witnessing the 
disgrace of Marlborough, retired discomfited. There 
was no other course open to him except to prosecute 
the war single-handed, but, after Philip had formally 
renounced all claim to the throne of France, first the 
Duke of Savoy and the King of Portugal, and then 
the Dutch, deserted the Grand Alliance, so that on 
the nth of April, 171 3, peace with France was signed 
at Utrecht by all the Powers except German}-, Spain 



214 CHARLES VI. 

acceding last on the 13th of July. By this treaty 
Louis XIV. acknowledged Anne as Queen of Great 
Britain, expelled the Pretender from France, and 
ceded to the British Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, and 
St. Christopher's, while Spain ceded to the British 
Gibraltar and Minorca. Philip renounced the crown 
of France, which was entailed on the Duke of Berry 
and afterwards on the Duke of Orleans, and ceded 
to Austria the Duchy of Milan and the Kingdom of 
Naples. Germany, as we have said, held aloof from 
these terms, but, as the campaign of 171 3 failed to 
obtain for her any advantage over the French, Prince 
Eugene and Marshal Villars began negotiations at 
Rastadt on the 26th of November of that year, and 
on the 6th of March, 17 14, preliminaries of peace were 
signed, which were followed on the 7th of September 
by a definite treaty. Charles acquired Naples, Milan, 
Mantua, Sardinia, and the Netherlands together 
with old Breisach, Kehl, and Freiburg, in return rein- 
stating the Electors of Bavaria and Cologne, and 
yielding to France the fortress of Landau. In the 
following year, on the 15th of November, 171 5, the 
" Treaty of the Barrier " was signed, which further 
limited the northern frontier of France. " Thus," 
says Villars, " a war of fourteen years, during which 
the Emperor and the King of France had almost 
left their respective capitals for good, Spain had 
seen two rival kings in Madrid, and nearly all the 
petty States of Italy had changed their sovereigns, 
a war which had desolated the greater part of Europe, 
was concluded on the very terms which might have 
been procured at the commencement of hostilities." 



PRINCE EUGENE AND THE TURK'S. 21 5 

During the negotiations for the Treaty of the 
Barrier the Turks had declared war against Venice 
and laid siege to Corfu. In this struggle Charles 
now became involved. The Porte having rejected 
his offers of mediation, Prince Eugene was despatched 
to Hungary at the head of a small but well dis- 
ciplined force. Having crossed the Danube he fell 
in with the Turks to the number of 150,000 near 
Peterwardein, and there he defeated them with a loss 
of 30,000 men (including the Grand Vizier) and 250 
guns. This victory was soon followed by the capture 
of Temeswar, the Bannat, and Wallachia. Next year 
Prince Eugene returned to win still greater successes. 
He parted with the Emperor Charles on the 14th of 
May, 17 1 7, two days after the birth of the Crown 
Princess Maria Theresia, and on the occasion his 
grateful monarch presented the famous general with 
a crucifix all richly set with diamonds, saying, " I am 
sure, Prince, that under this sign you will gain the 
victory." Eugene set out at the head of 60,000 men 
for Belgrade, the key of the Turkish dominions on 
the side of Hungary. To this town he at once laid 
siege, though it was vigorously defended by its 
garrison of 30,000 men. While thus engaged he was 
himself surrounded by a splendid Turkish army of 
200,000 men, which now threatened to cut off his 
retreat. There was nothing for it but to fight a 
decisive battle. Starting about midnight, accordingly, 
his men fell upon the Turks in the grey of the morn- 
ing, drove them within their entrenchments, carried 
these by assault, and turned the guns against their 
late possessors. The rout of the enemy was com- 



2l6 CHARLES VI. 

plete, and Belgrade fell almost immediately after- 
wards. Next year, on the 21st of July, 171 8, the 
peace of Passarovitz was concluded, which secured to 
Austria the conquered territories, including Servia 
and part of Bosnia. 

Meanwhile a state of war prevailed with Spain, whose 
monarch, Philip V., refused to renounce Naples, Milan, 
and the Netherlands. On the 5th of May, 171 5, how- 
ever, Charles concluded a defensive alliance with King 
George I. of Great Britain. The following September 
Louis died, and the Duke of Orleans being also 
at enmity with Philip, on the 4th of January, 171 7, 
the Triple Alliance between Great Britain, France, 
and the Netherlands was concluded at the Hague for 
the maintenance of the peace of Utrecht. Nothing 
daunted Philip invaded and conquered Sardinia in 
1717, and in the following year appeared in Sicily 
and blockaded Syracuse. Soon afterwards Charles, 
having disposed of the Turks, joined France and 
Great Britain in what has been called the Quadruple 
Alliance. The Emperor himself offered to renounce 
Spain and take Sicily instead of Sardinia on condition 
of Philip's giving up the Netherlands, Milan, and the 
Two Sicilies. At first Philip rejected these terms, 
but, when a French army had crossed the Pyrenees 
and entered Spain, and the Spanish fleet had been 
dispersed by the British, a treaty of peace was finally 
signed at the Hague on the 17th of February, 1720. 

It was soon after this last event that Charles 
promulgated the famous Pragmatic Sanction. The 
question of the succession was a serious one, and 
impressed its importance on the minds of the poli- 



THE PRAGMATIC SANCTION. 2\J 

ticians of the day. Prince Eugene relates that Count 
Wratislav often said, " God grant us a prince, other- 
wise we have nothing to expect but that the 
Austrian hereditary dominions will become spolia 
gentium" * As a matter of fact Charles was many 
years married before he had any children at all, and 
though ultimately his empress gave birth to a son, 
who died in infancy, and three daughters, Maria 
Theresia, Maria Anne, and Maria Amelia, the gravest 
fears prevailed at Vienna, and on the advice of Prince 
Eugene and Count Zinzendorf a new law of suc- 
cession was framed. By this sanction, on failure of 
issue male of the Emperor the Austrian territories 
were to go to his daughters in preference to the 
daughters of Joseph, after whom they were to fall 
to the Queen of Portugal and the other daughters of 
Leopold. To this the States soon assented, and 
Charles also devoted much trouble to obtain the 
guaranty of the European Powers for it. 

After the Quadruple x^lliance Charles's relations 
with foreign Powers became essentially changed. 
Louis XV. in France was anxious for peace that his 
country's resources might recover, and for the time 
being he kept quiet. The Netherlands also were 
weak and powerless. As for Sweden, Charles XII. 
who had been in alliance with Peter the Great of 
Russia, in 171 8 was preparing to attack the Emperor, 
when he suddenly died. Henceforth Sweden gradually 
lost its former power, especially after 1721, when, by 

1 " Gott gebe wis einen Prinzen, sonst ist an nichts anderes zu 
denken, als dass die osterreichischen Erbliinder spolia gentium 
werden." 



2l8 CHARLES VI. 

the peace of Nystadt, Livonia, Esthonia, and parts of 
Ingria and Finland were ceded to Russia, Bremen 
and Verden to Hanover, and Stettin to Prussia. 
From the side of Russia, however, matters looked so 
threatening that in 17 19 Charles entered into a defen- 
sive alliance with George I. of Great Britain and the 
King of Poland, but after the death of Charles XII. 
Peter the Great hesitated to take the offensive. 
Poland at this time had fallen greatly from the glorious 
position attained under John Sobieski, and as for the 
Turks, these had been too much awed by their defeats 
to continue to be troublesome. In Italy, Austria was 
all-powerful, only Venice, Genoa, the Papal States and 
Modena, Parma and Tuscany not acknowledging the 
Emperor. The greatest increase in power and influ- 
ence, nevertheless, at this time probably took place 
in Great Britain and Prussia. The fleet of the former 
now ruled the sea and the well-equipped standing 
army in the latter, which had been established by 
Frederick William, grandson of the great Elector, 
tended to make the country a powerful factor in the 
affairs of Germany. 

With Philip V. of Spain hostilities never ceased. 
This monarch unexpectedly abdicated, however, 
in 1724, in favour of his son, Don Louis, and on the 
latter's death almost immediately afterwards, con- 
ferences were resumed under the mediation of France 
and Great Britain. These negotiations were prolonged 
for months, but in 1725, a treaty was finally agreed 
upon between the Emperor and Spain, which fully 
confirmed the arrangements of the Quadruple 
Alliance. This treaty was soon followed by others 



PEACE WITH EUROPEAN POWERS. 219 

of commerce and mutual defence. Meanwhile the 
Emperor had shown more and more disposition to 
break with the British, and the efforts that were now 
made to recover Gibraltar for Spain caused Great 
Britain to enter into a defensive league with France 
and Prussia in opposition to the Austrian-Spanish 
alliance. This league was also subsequently joined 
by the United Provinces, Sweden and Denmark, but 
its effect was much weakened by the early defection 
of Prussia, whose king Charles succeeded in gaining 
to his side. The Spanish in 1727 besieged Gibraltar 
without effect, and Charles's preparations to invade 
Holland from his territories in the Netherlands could 
not be completed, owing to internal dissensions. 
Many of his allies had in the meantime deserted him, 
and at last, humbled by circumstances, he resolved to 
sacrifice Spain to his own interests, and on May 31, 
1727, agreed to preliminaries of peace with Great 
Britain, France, and the United Provinces. The 
King of Spain being left thus isolated also concluded 
peace, June 30, 1727. 

Some delay occurred in the execution of a formal 
treaty, owing to the death of George I. of England 
and Philip's declining to instantly raise the siege of 
Gibraltar, but on France and Great Britain showing a 
disposition to renew the war with redoubled .vigour, 
Charles became quite humble. Mutual distrust also 
arose between the courts of Madrid and Vienna, and 
so strained became the relations between the King 
of Spain and Charles, that the former concluded a 
separate treaty with Great Britain and France at 
Seville, November 9, 1729, to which the United 



220 CHARLES VI. 

Provinces acceded, November 21, 1729. This treaty 
confirmed the peace of Utrecnt, and revoked . the 
privileges granted by Spain to the Emperor, thus 
terminating the connection between Spain and 
Austria. Charles was indignant at being thus duped, 
and Count Zinzendorf declared that the manner of 
executing this treaty was an unheard-of affront, a 
similar instance to which could not be adduced even 
from among barbarians. All Charles's threats of war 
and intrigues were, however, of no avail, and, coldly 
supported by his States and left isolated by Prussia 
and Russia, he yielded to necessity, made overtures to 
the British, and concluded in 1731 the second treaty of 
Vienna. Practically the only advantage Charles 
gained by all his delays and machinations was the 
guaranty of the Pragmatic Sanction by Spain, Prussia, 
Russia, Great Britain, and the Netherlands. He now 
set himself to get the assent of the States of Germany ; 
and in this he was successful, all giving their sanction 
on January 11, 1732, except the Electors of Bavaria, 
the Palatinate, and Saxony. About this time he estab- 
lished the naval port of Re, Porto Re, near Fiume, 
and also spent much money in making roads and 
other works along the shores of the Adriatic. 

In 1733, Charles became involved in a fresh war 
with France, owing to the death of Augustus II. of 
Poland. Several competitors for the succession 
appeared ; but the number soon became reduced to 
two, Stanislaus Leszczynski, son of the great treasurer 
of Poland, and Augustus, Elector of Saxony, son of 
the late monarch. Augustus agreed to confirm the 
Pragmatic Sanction, and received the Emperor's 



THE POLISH SUCCESSION. 221 

support, but the majority of the diet and France were 
in favour of Leszczynski. To settle the matter by 
force, the Emperor arranged with Russia and Prussia 
to march into Poland, whereupon the Poles in a state 
of irritation formally elected Stanislaus, September 
12, 1733. Three months later, the Russian army 
had conquered most of the country, and was besieg- 
ing Stanislaus in Danzig. On the 25th of December 
Augustus was crowned at Cracow. France now 
matured her grand scheme for the humiliation of the 
Austrian house, and attacked both Germany and Italy. 
Spain and Sardinia also took the field, and in February, 
1734, after losing Milan, Charles was called upon to 
defend Mantua against the French and Sardinians. 
The Austrian troops under Merci met with varying 
success, and at a fierce battle near Crocetta, in the 
course of which 10,000 men fell without a prisoner 
being taken, though the Imperialists held their own, 
their general fell mortally wounded. The command 
being then taken over by Konigsegg, the Austrians 
crossed the Secchia and drove the allied forces back 
to Guastalla, where, however, the former sustained a 
repulse. Meanwhile the Spanish under Don Carlos 
attacked Naples, defeated the Austrian party and 
took Gaeta and Capua, after which Don Carlos was 
crowned king under the title of Charles III. The 
same year the French crossed the Rhine, whereupon 
the Imperialists there found themselves compelled 
to remain on the defensive. At last, the Emperor, 
having failed to get that assistance which he 
had expected to receive from England, was forced 
to submit to the mediation of the maritime Powers. 



222 CHARLES VI. 

On the ist of April, 1735, terms of peace were duly 
arranged. Stanislaus was to renounce his claims to 
Poland, Don Carlos was to be acknowledged King of 
the Two Sicilies, and France and Sardinia were to 
guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction. Owing to the 
disunion among the allies fulfilment of this peace 
was somewhat delayed, and in Italy the Emperor 
sustained a series of disasters, including the loss of 
Sicily. The Emperor now threw himself into the 
arms of France, and by a secret treaty at Vienna of 
October 5, T 735> the Duchy of Bar and the reversion 
of Lothringen were ceded to France. A definite 
treaty to the same effect was signed November 8, 
1738. With Spain, Sardinia, and Naples peace was 
not arranged until 1739. Stanislaus, instead of 
Poland, got Lothringen and Bar, and all parties 
agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic Sanction. No 
wonder that the Prussian soldiers of the period sang 
to the sound of their trumpets : 

" Die Franzosen haben das Geld gestohlen, 
Die Preussen wollen es wieder holen, 

Geduld, Geduld, Geduld ! " ' 

It had long been Charles's dearest wish to marry his 
eldest daughter, Maria Theresia, to Francis Stephen, 
Duke of Lothringen and Bar. Hitherto France had 
stood in the way of this arrangement, but now no 
further difficulties in that quarter barred this alliance. 
Maria Theresia herself, too, was very anxious for the 
match. Mr. Robinson wrote to Lord Harrington, 

1 " The French have stolen our money, but the Prussians will get it 
back ; patience, patience, patience ! " 



MARIA THERESIA's MARRIAGE. 223 

July 5, 1735 : " She is a princess of the highest spirit ; 
her father's losses are her own. She reasons already ; 
she enters into affairs ; she admires his virtues but 
condemns his mismanagement ; and is of a temper 
so formed for rule and ambition as to look upon him 
as little more than her administrator. Notwithstand- 
ing this lofty humour by day, she sighs and pines all 
night for her Duke of Lorraine. If she sleeps it is 
only to dream of him, if she wakes it is but to talk of 
him to the lady-in-waiting ; so that there is no more 
probability of her forgetting the very individual 
government, and the very individual husband which 
she thinks herself born to, than of her forgiving the 
authors of her losing either." And here is one of her 
love letters : " Dem durchlauchtigsten Ftirsten Frantz 
Hertzogen zu Lothringen, meinem villgeliebten 
Brautigamb, Caro viso, je vous suis infinement obliges 
pour votre attentation de m'ecrire de vos nouvelles, 
car j'etois en peine comme une pauvre chienne ; aimez 
moi un peu et me pardonnez si je ne vous repons pas 
assez, mais c'est 10 heure et Herbeville attende pour 
ma lettre ; adieu maeusl, je vous embrasse de tout 
mon coeur, menagez vous bien ; adieu caro viso, je 
suis la votre sponsia dilectissima." * Accordingly, on 
February 12, 1736, the wedding was duly solemnised, 
and thus became united, so to speak, the ancient 

1 To his most serene highness, Francis, Duke of Lothringen, my dear 
fiance, — Dear face, I cannot express my obligation to you for your 
attention in sending me news of you, for I was troubled like a little 
dog ; love me a little and forgive me if my answer seems too short, but 
it is ten o'clock and (Count) Herbeville (the chamberlain) is waiting for 
my letter ; goodbye, my little mouse, I embrace you with all my heart, 
take care of yourself ; goodbye, dear face, I am your dearest bride." 



224 CHARLES VI. 

houses of • Alsace and Lothringen, both descended 
from Duke Etico, the ancestral forefather of the 
Habsburg dynasty. 

In April of 1736, Prince Eugene of Savoy died. 
This, in view of the approaching war with Turkey, 
proved a most unfortunate event, and, in fact, down to 
Charles's death, there prevailed the greatest confusion 
at the seat of government. Bartenstein was now the 
Emperor's chief adviser, but this statesman appears 
to have been quite incapable of acting either with 
prudence or with vigour. The army at this time, 
moreover, seems to have got into a most deplorable 
state. Sickendorf, who had been sent to inspect it, 
wrote to Bartenstein : " Some companies of my 
regiment in Belgrade are thrust into holes where a 
man would not put even his favourite hounds, and I 
cannot see the situation of these miserable and half- 
starved wretches without tears." 

It was in this critical state of affairs that the 
Emperor became involved in a fresh war with the 
Turks. The. Russians had invaded the latter's 
dominions, whereupon they appealed to the Emperor, 
who, however, had secretly promised the Czarina to 
send troops to her aid, and who now, instead of 
acting as mediator himself, commenced operations. 
Sickendorf was appointed field marshal and ordered 
to attack Nissa ; but his forces were few in number 
and disorganised, and soon he found himself obliged 
to leave Nissa and entrench himself on the Save. 
The authorities at home, disgusted at the want of 
result, recalled their field marshal, put him on his 
trial, and, though he was not actually found guilty of 



SIEGE OF BELGRADE. 22 5 

any offence, kept him a long time in confinement. 
The Duke of Lothringen was now made Commander- 
in-chief with Konigsegg immediately under him and in 
1738 a second campaign was undertaken against the 
Turks. This proved even less fortunate than that of 
the previous year. The Pasha of Widdin at the head 
of 20,000 men laid siege to Orsova, and in a short 
time the Turks were masters of nearly all Servia. 
The only ray of sunshine on the side of the Imperialist 
troops shone when the Turks attacked them between 
Donaschy and Kornia and suffered a severe repulse. 
Almost immediately afterwards, when near Orsova, 
the Austrians were surprised by the Grand Vizier and 
driven back with considerable loss. The Duke of 
Lothringen now returned to Vienna. Orsova was in 
due course captured, and Konigsegg retired within the 
walls of Belgrade. Konigsegg was, however, soon 
recalled in disgrace, and Khevenhuller took the com- 
mand. The Emperor, on hearing the news of these 
repeated disasters, is said to have exclaimed : " Is 
the fortune of my Empire departed with Eugene ? " 

In 1739, Marshal Wallis took the command, but 
by that time the troops were in an even worse state 
than before, and their stores were almost exhausted. 
Nevertheless, he at once assumed the offensive, but 
at Krotzka a hotly contested battle was fought in 
which neither side gained much advantage, but after 
which the Imperialists retreated with a loss of 7,000 
men. Wallis now remained inactive, and the Turks 
renewed their assaults upon Belgrade. Meanwhile 
in Vienna, people were clamouring at the want of 
success, and the Emperor, in the hope of retrieving 

16 



226 



CHARLES VI. 



the honour of his arms, sent General Schmettau to the 
seat of war, who for the time being relieved Belgrade. 
Negotiations were then opened with the Turks, and 
soon afterwards the peace of Belgrade was signed, 
by which the Turks kept not only all Servia, including 
the fortress of Belgrade, but also the stronghold of 
Orsova. 

Much of the recent confusion at the seat of govern- 
ment had, undoubtedly, as its cause the failing health 
of the Emperor. Nor was the disgraceful peace of 
Belgrade likely to improve his state. As a matter of 
fact, he did not survive it long. In the beginning 
of October, 1740, he showed symptoms of a severe 
attack of gout, on the 10th of the month he was 
taken seriously ill, and on the morning of the 20th 
he passed away in the fifty-sixth year of his age and 
thirtieth of his reign. We are told that almost his 
last word was the exclamation " Barcelona ! " 




XVII 

MARIA THERESIA 
RISE OF PRUSSIAN POWER 

CHARLES VI. left no other children surviving 
besides Maria Theresia and Maria Amelia, and of 
these the eldest, now in her twenty-fourth year, 
succeeded to the dominions of the House of Austria 
in virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction. The period was 
a critical one. Several claimants for the Austrian 
succession were expected to come forward, and 
affairs in the Empire were in a by no means 
organised condition. Years before, Prince Eugene 
had exclaimed with reference to Charles VI.'s 
favourite project, the Pragmatic Sanction : " Bah ! 
Two hundred thousand soldiers are much more 
valuable than all the sanctions of the world ! " 
The truth of this utterance was now to become 
manifest. 

When Maria Theresia ascended the throne, there 
were many in Vienna who shook their heads and 
said, " A woman can never rule over this immense 

Empire, the Elector of Bavaria will soon have it all." 

227 



228 MARIA THERESIA 

And yet, though a woman, she was a great ruler. 
We have already referred to the spirit with which 
she courted her cavalier lover, and may now quote 
the words of the Venetian Ambassador, Foscarini, 
who remarked that " if the heiress to the House of 
Austria were to be chosen from all the women in 
the world, yet would the choice fall on Maria 
Theresia ; her chief characteristics are high-minded- 
ness and a certain manliness of spirit." She was 
majestic in her bearing, and certainly also beautiful. 
Accomplished in all the graceful arts, she danced 
and sang and played, and she spoke Latin, French, 
Italian, Spanish, and German with almost equal 
fluency. Of her nobility of character we have an 
example in the tale that is told of her, to the effect 
that, upon her seeing a sick woman with two half- 
starved children, she remarked : " What have I left 
undone that such a sight as this disfigures my rule ? " 
And one day, soon after the birth of her firstborn son, 
Joseph, meeting a poor woman with a child which tried 
in vain to derive nourishment from its mother's breast, 
she threw to them a coin, and on the mother remarking : 
" But of what use is gold to me when I can't give my 
child milk ? " the queen herself took the infant, and 
setting herself down on a seat gave it the nourish- 
ment it required from her own breast. It is also 
told of her that when she assumed her father's 
sceptre, she still clung to his old advisers, and 
summoning around her Field Marshal Palffy (then 
seventy-six years of age), Bartenstein (then over 
seventy), Harrach, Field Marshal Konigsegg and 
others, she said to them : " Go on ; do as much good 




MAKIA THERESIA. 



230 MARIA THERESIA 

as you can ; it will be time enough for me to interfere 
with you When you do wrong." 

On the very day of her father's death, Maria 
Theresia was proclaimed Queen of Hungary and 
Bohemia, and the next day, notwithstanding the 
freshness of her sorrow, she took part in a sitting 
of her ministry. A month later she nominated her 
husband as co-regent with her. 

The first sign of the gathering storm came from 
Munich in the form of a protest from the Elector 
of Bavaria against her accession. The Elector of 
Bavaria claimed the throne through Ferdinand I., 
to whose race he asserted the crown reverted on the 
failure of male issue of Charles VI. Opposition was 
also manifested by the Elector Palatine, who in 
writing to her addressed her simply as the Arch- 
duchess Maria Theresia. In this matter much 
naturally depended on the attitude of the other 
Powers, and for the signification of their assent 
Maria Theresia and her ministers waited with the 
greatest anxiety. The real onslaught, however, came 
from quite a different quarter. Frederick II. of 
Prussia, bent upon aggrandisement, had prepared 
his plans in secrecy, and now, to the astonishment 
of every one, invaded Silesia on the strength ot 
old claims to the duchies there. Sensible of his 
strength and Austria's Aveakness, he assumed a 
patronising air, and offered to secure the Imperial 
crown for the young queen if she would grant him 
his demands. He was met with the dignified reply : 
" We cannot alienate Austrian territory ; we will 
rather perish than enter into any discussion with 



WAS WITH PRUSSIA. 23 1 

you." Frederick felt he could not draw back. " I 
have crossed the Rubicon," he said, and on the 1st 
of January, 1741, the Prussians entered Breslau in 
triumph, and by the end of the month were in 
possession of the whole province. The only way to 
repel force is to use force, and now the Austrians, 
under Count Neipperg, entered Silesia and met the 
Prussians near Mollwitz. Each side numbered 
about 20,000 men, the Prussians being superior in 
infantry and the Austrians in cavalry. The Austrian 
cavalry charged, but the Prussian infantry withstood 
the brunt. Meanwhile the Prussian cavalry was put 
to flight, and the King himself almost captured. 
In the end the steadiness of the infantry prevailed, 
and the Prussians gained a complete victory. 
Frederick, who early in the day had fled in dismay 
from the scene, on hearing next day the news of his 
own victory, drily remarked : " Young warriors should 
learn by this not to lose all hope so soon." 

The Court of Vienna was thrown into consternation at 
the news of the defeat of the veteran troops of Austria. 
Maria Theresia at once applied to the Powers who 
had guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, but she met 
with but little response. France was only too glad 
to see Austria humbled, and Great Britain was too 
nearly connected with Prussia through Hanover to 
care to actively interfere. The British minister did, 
indeed, suggest to the Queen that she should 
surrender the four duchies of Glogau, Wohlau, Lieg- 
nitz, and Schweidnitz, but this proposal she instantly 
rejected. Nor would the King of Prussia listen to 
reason, and both opponents continuing inflexible, the 



232 MARIA THERESIA 

struggle went on. So far as the Queen of Hungary 
was concerned, matters now became much worse, for 
the Elector of Bavaria had actually invaded her 
dominions and taken Passau, while the French were 
preparing to cross the Rhine. Again efforts were 
made to treat, but the Queen was obstinate, and 
only offered a partial cession of Silesia. In this 
conduct she was supported by Bartenstein, who 
argued : " The friendship of the King of Prussia is 
worse than his enmity ; nothing 'but mischief can be 
expected from him, and the only means of security 
will be to disarm him. To attempt to rectify the 
King of Prussia without ruining him would be as 
much lost trouble as to wash a blackamoor white." 
Accordingly, she would not so much as even dis- 
cuss the matter with Frederick. Meanwhile Great 
Britain was growing indignant at the treatment to 
which the young Queen was being subjected, and 
sent assistance in money, but the neutrality of that 
country was effectually secured by the threats of the 
allies against Hanover. 

Desperate as was her situation and isolated as she 
now felt herself to be, Maria Theresia's spirit never 
gave way. Wherever she went among her people 
she kindled their zeal and caused them to hail her 
with enthusiasm. Vivat domina et rex noster ! z was 
the shout. Her manly character combined with her 
womanly form inspired them with sympathy. When 
she was crowned at Pressburg, she rode on horseback 
up to the royal mount with her crown upon her head, 
and waved a sword to the four cardinal points as 

1 " Long live our mistress and king ! " 



CESSION OF LOWER SILESIA. 233 

much as to say : " So long as I have this, I fear no 
foes ! " And to the Hungarian States she said : 
" Forsaken by all, we place our sole resource in the 
fidelity, arms, and long-tried valour of the Hun- 
garians ; " whereupon the deputies with one accord 
half drew their swords from their scabbards, then 
threw them back tc the hilts exclaiming : " We will 
consecrate our lives and arms ; we will die for our 
king Maria Theresia ! " Equally touching, too, was 
the subsequent meeting when she caused the infant 
Archduke Joseph to be shown to the assembly, a cry 
of exultation rising up : " We will die for the Queen and 
her family ; we will die for our King Maria Theresia ! " 

The Bavarians pursued their advantage, and in due 
course joined the French, under Belleisle, and took 
Linz. Here the Elector was inaugurated as Duke 
of Austria. Instead of proceeding to Vienna, how- 
ever, he turned into Bohemia, and laid siege to 
Prague. Divisions then began to appear among the 
allies. The King of Prussia, jealous of the Elector's 
success, became more willing to treat. The Queen 
of Hungary, too, realising the desperate state of 
matters, began to incline towards Prussia in order 
to have the power of dealing with other foes nearer 
home. Negotiations accordingly were reopened, and 
full powers given to Austrian ministers to cede the 
whole of Lower Silesia together with Breslau and 
Neisse to Prussia. Thus satisfied, Frederick pro- 
mised her peace, and left her to turn her whole force 
against the French, the Bavarians, and the Saxons. 

Of this opportunity Maria Theresia soon availed 
herself. The first efforts were devoted to the relief 



234 MARIA THERESIA 

of Prague. Thither accordingly the Duke of Lothrin- 
gen marched at the head of 60,000 men, but when he 
arrived on the spot he received the mortifying news 
that the town had surrendered the previous night. 
The same day the Elector of Bavaria was crowned 
at Prague King of Bohemia. Soon afterwards France 
succeeded in her desire to wrest the Imperial crown 
from the House of Austria, and on February 12, 
1742, the Elector was crowned at Frankfurt under 
the title of Charles VII. Meanwhile the Austrians, 
under Khevenhtiller carried everything before them, 
retook Linz and Passau, and entered the capital of 
Bavaria on the very day of the crowning at Frankfurt. 
A medal of the period has on the one side a representa- 
tion of the Duke of Lothringen with the inscription : 
" Aut CcBsar aut nihil" ("Either Emperor or nothing"), 
and on the other side a representation of Charles 
VII. with the inscription " Et Ccesar et nihil" (both 
Caesar and nothing). 

The King of Prussia, alarmed at the Austrian 
successes, now broke his neutrality, seized Olmutz 
and Glatz, and advanced to the frontiers of 
Bohemia and even into the territories of Upper 
Austria. Prince Charles of Lothringen at once set 
out from Moravia, and coming up with the Prussians 
near Chotusitz attacked them, but the steadiness 
of the Prussian infantry was such that they remained 
masters of the field. As, however, neither side gained 
much advantage, negotiations were soon recommenced 
and concluded, the Queen of Hungary agreeing to 
cede all Upper and Lower Silesia together with the 
county of Glatz. 



WITHDRAWAL OF THE FRENCH. 2$$ 

From this point uninterrupted success seemed to 
follow the Austrian arms. Money and men poured 
in upon Maria Theresia from abroad, especially from 
England, which believed in maintaining the House 
of Austria as a bulwark against the ascendancy of 
France. Soon the French general Broglie was 
driven from Branau and forced to retreat upon 
Prague Marshal Belleisle then tried to arrange for 
a withdrawal of the French forces. But this last 
proposal was indignantly rejected, the haughty queen 
exclaiming : " I will grant no capitulation to the 
French army ! " Reinforcements, however, succeeded 
in getting to Prague, and Belleisle made a masterly 
retreat. Nevertheless seldom has a European army 
suffered as he and his men did. " The roads," says 
Pelzel, " were dreadful to behold ; they were over- 
spread with corpses ; heaps of one and two hundred 
men each with their officers were found stiffened with 
the frost or dead with fatigue." Though the French 
themselves thus escaped, great was the rejoicing at 
Vienna over the re-occupation of Prague. Among 
other entertainments, a chariot race in the Greek style 
took place, in which, to prove the triumph of the sex, 
ladies alone were allowed to contend, the Queen 
herself and her sister entering the lists. 

Let us turn for a moment to Italy. The Queen of 
Spain had seized the opportunity of Austria's troubles 
to endeavour to place her second son, Don Philip, over 
the kingdom of Lombardy. With this in view, she 
had previously entered into negotiations with France 
and Sardinia, without whose help there was little hope 
of success. The Sardinians held the key of the Alps, 



236 MARIA THERESIA 

and England ruled the sea. The King of Sardinia, 
however, was jealous of the aggrandisement of Spain, 
and readily agreed with the Queen of Hungary, on 
condition of her ceding Milan to him, to maintain 
a strict neutrality and even to help her. This led 
to his being involved in a severe struggle for his 
own dominions. Spain held Bologna and Romagna, 
and the Austrians and Sardinians held Modena and 
Parma. For a long time the contest was obstinately 
maintained on both sides, but at last on the 8th of 
February, 1743, a decisive battle took place at Campo 
Santo, in the course of which the Spanish lost about 
4,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, the 
Austrian and Sardinian loss being stated at about 
1,700. Some difficulty then occurred as to what 
additional cessions should be made to Sardinia, but 
ultimately, in September of 1743, an offensive and 
defensive treaty was signed at Worms between the 
Austrians on the one side and the British and Sar- 
dinians on the other. 

While these events were proceeding in Italy, Car- 
dinal Fleury, who had hitherto directed French policy, 
died, and Louis XV. himself took a more active 
management of affairs. Far too much indulgence 
and luxury had about this period prevailed at Court, 
and French counsels had become much distracted. 
Even a French historian says : " France at that time 
was too much like a vessel sailing without a com- 
pass on a boisterous sea, following no certain course 
but driven about at the mercy of the winds and 
waves." At the same time, in proportion as France 
grew weaker, Maria Theresia became more and more 



BATTLE OF DETTINGEN. 2^J 

triumphant. In 1743 Prince Charles of Lothringen 
drove the French back on the Iser and the Rhine 
and routed the Bavarians at Erblach. Charles VII., 
having lost nearly all his dominions, now renounced 
his claims to the Austrian succession, and retired 
to Frankfurt. Even there, however, he was not to be 
left in peace. The British and Austrian troops in 
the Netherlands, under the Earl of Stair, marched 
upon the Main, and, having passed the Rhine, 
approached the royal city. At Aschaffenburg the 
allies were caught in a defile and found themselves 
surrounded by superior numbers. Then the arrival of 
George II. and the Duke of Cumberland revived the 
spirits of their troops, and at Dettingen they bravely 
attacked the French and cut their way through. The 
losses were severe, the Duke of Cumberland himself 
being wounded, but, though the allies had to with- 
draw to Hanau, leaving their sick and wounded in 
the hands of the French, this battle was regarded by 
them as a victory and celebrated as such. At 
Vienna a " Te Deum " was solemnly sung, and on 
Prince Charles's return he received in marriage the 
Queen's sister, Maria Amelia, and the administration of 
the Netherlands. His union was not of a very long 
duration, for a year later his wife died. On the 22nd 
of April of the same year Maria Theresia was duly 
crowned at Prague, the shout being three times re- 
peated : " Vivet et triumpJict ! " — " Long may our 
noble Queen live and conquer ! " 

Hitherto the mutual hostility of France and Great 
Britain had been more as allies of other parties at 
war than as principals. In 1744, however, France 



238 MARIA T HER ESI A 

formally declared war against Great Britain and 
Austria at the same time. A threatened invasion of 
England paralysed the efforts of the allies in the 
north, but on the west Prince Charles got posses- 
sion of Alsace and prepared to enter Lothringen. 
Once more Frederick of Prussia, fearing the results of 
Austrian success, and that having humbled France 
Maria Theresia would seek to recover Silesia, took the 
field. Entering Bohemia, he compelled Prague to 
surrender and soon became master of the whole 
country to the east of the Moldau. Vienna became 
alarmed, but the Queen, with her usual energy, 
animated the Hungarians and soon had an army 
sufficiently large to threaten the Prussian communi- 
cations. About the same time the King of Naples 
became active and joined the Spaniards. But at 
Veletri the latter lost nearly 3,000 men, though 
the Austrians failed to follow up their advantage. 
The Sardinians, however, were forced back by the 
French and Spanish, who nevertheless, after losing 
about 10,000 men, closed their campaign and recrossed 
the Alps. 

Early in 1745 Charles VII. died at Munich, and 
intrigues regarding the succession to the Imperial 
crown again were indulged in. The British, anxious 
to spite France, supported the claims of the Duke of 
Lothringen, and notwithstanding the tampering with 
the German princes, he was duly elected and crowned 
on the 4th of October, 1745, Maria Theresia herself 
leading off the shouts of acclamation with, " Long live 
the Emperor Francis I. ! " This was the only bright 
spot in Austrian affairs that year. In Flanders, Italy, 




FRANCIS I. 



240 



MARIA THERE S/A 



and Bohemia matters did not proceed very favourably. 
At Fontenoy the allied British, Dutch, and Austrian 
troops failed to dislodge the French under Marshal 
Saxe. In Italy Don Philip was now in Milan, and 
Tortona, Placentia, Parma, &c, had been wrested 
from the Austrians and Sardinians. The Prussians, 
too, had succeeded in escaping out of their critical 
situation in Schweidnitz, and in again driving the 
Austrians to the Adler and the Elbe, where ultimately 
a battle was fought in which the Austrians were 
driven from height to height, the Prussians gaining 
the victory chiefly through the steadiness of their 
infantry. While the latter only lost about 2,000 men, 
the Austrians left behind them 4,000 killed, 7,000 
prisoners, including four generals and 200 officers, 66 
guns, and many standards. Great Britain now tried 
to force peace upon Austria, and, on the British 
threatening to withdraw from their alliance, and 
being dispirited by her misfortunes, Maria Theresia 
at last signed the peace of Dresden on the 25th of 
December, 1745, by which Frederick evacuated 
Saxony and acknowledged Francis L, but was con- 
firmed in his possession of Silesia and Glatz. 




XVIII 

MARIA THERESIA {continued 
THE SEVEN YEARS* WAR. 

THOUGH the peace of Dresden caused a respite for 
the time being on the side of Prussia, the war with 
France still proceeded. Early in 1746 Marshal Saxe 
captured Brussels and Mechlin ; Louvain, Antwerp, 
Mons, Charleroy, and Namur were also all success- 
fully besieged and taken. Finally, at the battle of 
Rancoux, the allies were attacked and repulsed near 
Maastricht and compelled to retire across the river. 
In Italy, on the other hand, the Austrians and Sar- 
dinians had now become superior in numbers to the 
enemy and succeeded in recapturing Milan, Guastalla, 
and Parma. Meanwhile Philip V. of Spain had died, 
and Ferdinand VI., who succeeded him, proved so 
weak and vacillating that the Imperialists, following 
up their successes, were soon in possession of Genoa. 
Now, however, the King of Sardinia began to fear 
the resuscitation of Austrian influence and relaxed 
his efforts. Then an insurrection occurred in Genoa 

17 241 



242 MARIA THERESIA 

which caused the Austrian s to retire from that town. 
Through weariness of strife and fear of further losses 
every one, therefore, began to long for peace. To this 
Maria Theresia herself was the chief obstacle, for she 
had lately formed an alliance with Russia and wanted 
revenge. At last, when Marshal Belleisle had raised 
her siege of Genoa, and Bergen-op-Zoom had been 
captured, she reluctantly consented to the terms that 
were proposed, and on the 18th of May, 1748, pre- 
liminaries of oeace were duly signed. Still, the 
ill-humour of Vienna was such that it was not till 
October of the following year that the definite treaty 
was signed at Aix la Chapeile. By this the Emperor 
was acknowledged as such and the Pragmatic Sanction 
guaranteed, Maria Theresia recovered her provinces in 
the Netherlands but restored her conquests in Italy. 
Don Philip received Parma, Placentia, and Guastalla. 
The Empress now set about healing her country's 
wounds. She set the finances in order, introduced a 
greater degree of economy into all branches of the 
State service, formed permanent camps and promoted 
military manoeuvres, and introduced many useful 
internal changes. Meanwhile her older advisers had 
nearly all died, and at the head of matters political 
was now Count Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz-Rietberg, 
a scion of an old Bohemian family, whose wife was 
the Countess of Starhemberg. This man had been 
early marked out as the future Prime Minister and had 
already distinguished himself, first at the Congress of 
Aix la Chapeile in 1748, and afterwards, from 175 1 to 
1752, as Ambassador at Paris. His efforts were 
chiefly directed to the isolation of Prussia, and with 




COUNT WENZEL ANTON VON KAUNITZ. 



244 MARIA THERESIA 

that object in view he sought to conciliate France 
and England to the House of Austria. To France he 
offered to cede a portion of the Netherlands if Louis 
XV. would assist him to recover Silesia, and Maria 
Theresia herself even stooped to write a personal 
affectionate letter to Louis's mistress, the notorious 
Madame de Pompadour, in the hope of gaining her 
point. With Great Britain matters were on a some- 
what different footing, and the breach rather tended 
to widen owing to the failure of Austria to properly 
protect the Netherlands whose security Great Britain 
wished upheld. Maria Theresia's Ministers also refused 
or delayed to guarantee George II. in his possession of 
Hanover. Under these circumstances Great Britain 
turned to Prussia, and between these countries a 
convention of neutrality was concluded on the 16th 
of January, 1756. 

This unexpected turn of events naturally made the 
Empress more and more anxious to come to terms 
with France. The Emperor himself, it is true, did 
not like the idea. Indeed, when Kaunitz suggested 
the matter of an alliance with France to him, it is 
said that he rose from his seat and struck the table 
with his hand, saying, " Such an unnatural alliance is 
impracticable and must never take place." Kaunitz, 
however, gained over the Empress to his side, and 
ultimately convinced the Emperor that it was the best 
course. They, having made up their minds, soon found 
justification for their conduct. To the remonstrances of 
the British Minister, who said to the Empress, " Will 
you, the Empress and Archduchess, so far humble 
yourself as to throw yourself into the arms of 



BATTLE OF LOBOSITZ 245 

France ? " she replied, " Not into the arms but on 
the side of France." 

About this time Maria Theresia secured the co- 
operation of Augustus III. of Poland and Elector of 
Saxony, as well as that of the Czarina of Russia. 
With these she planned a course of action. While 
the Russians assembled on the frontiers of Livonia, 
Maria Theresia gathered her forces at Koniggratz 
and Prague. These preparations, however, did not 
escape the notice of the King of Prussia, and he, 
having asked for explanations and failed to receive 
a satisfactory reply, at once, and without waiting to 
declare war, invaded Saxony with 70,000 men, took 
Dresden and surrounded the Saxon troops under 
Rutowski in their fortress of Pirna. In this wise 
began the Seven Years' War. 

To help the Saxons the Imperial army, under 
Count Maximilian Ulysses Browne or Broune, a man 
of Irish extraction, advanced from the side of Bohemia. 
Frederick was not behindhand, and detached two 
columns, of which the one of 40,000 men, under Field- 
marshal Keith and the Duke of Bevern, marched against 
Prague, and the other of 3 5 ,000 men, under the Count of 
Schwerin, against Koniggratz. General Browne there- 
upon posted his troops on the plains of Lobositz, on 
the left bank of the Elbe, and here, on the 1st of 
October, a battle was fought in which neither side 
gained any decided advantage, after which, neverthe- 
less, the Austrians retired behind the Eger. The 
effects of Maria Theresia's reforms in the army now 
became visible, and after this battle even the Prus- 
sians said, "These men are different from the Austrians 



246 MARIA THE RES I A 

we formerly faced ! " One more attempt to help the 
Saxons was made, but on the 15 th of October 
Rutowski and 12,000 Saxon troops were forced to 
surrender at Lilienstein, the officers being liberated 
on parole and the rank and file enlisted into the 
Prussian service. 

The winter months were spent in preparing for a 
vigorous campaign in the spring. France and Sweden 
actively intervened as parties to the peace of West- 
phalia, and between the former and Austria a secret 
treaty seems to have been made. Before long 
80,000 French troops took the field under Marshal 
d'Estrees, while at the same time the Swedes 
threatened Pomerania, and 60,000 Russians assem- 
bled 'on the frontiers of Livonia. Frederick saw 
that a rapid blow must be struck, and this at the 
heart of the confederacy against him. Accordingly 
bursting into Bohemia he attacked the Austrians 
near Prague. At first it seemed as if he must retire, 
but, despite the carnage, charge after charge was 
made, and at last the Austrians broke and fled. 
It is said that Count Schwerin, who commanded the 
Prussian cavalry, on hearing the King upbraid his 
men, wrapped the colours round him, and crying out, 
" Let the brave follow me," headed another charge, 
falling almost at once pierced with balls. The 
Austrians lost 8,000 killed and 9,000 prisoners, while 
the Prussian loss is stated at not less than 18,000 
killed. Prince Charles retired within Prague with 
28,000 men, and that town was then besieged. 
Frequent sallies were made without effect, and the 
direst famine prevailed, yet the besieged, encouraged 




AUSTRIAN GENERAL AND OFFICER. 

Seven Years' War) 



248 MARIA THERESIA 

by promises of rescue, bravely held out. A new 
Austrian general now appears on the field — Marshal 
Daun. He, with the relieving force, encountered the 
Prussians on June 18, 1757, at Kolin, and a fierce 
battle ensued. Seven times the Prussians were led to 
the attack, and seven times they were repulsed. The 
carnage was dreadful and the men would go forward 
no more. Frederick in disgust had to acknowledge 
himself beaten, and, raising the siege of Prague, 
retired to Saxony. Daun lost 9,000 men, while the 
Prussians suffered a loss of over 14,000 in killed, 
wounded, and prisoners. Maria Theresia, on hearing 
the joyful news, wrote to Daun characterising the 
event as having worked " the regeneration of the 
monarchy." To this hero also she presented her own 
order, a cross with the motto " Fortitudini " ( a For 
bravery "). 

Meanwhile the French had overrun the Prussian 
territories to the left of the Rhine, and penetrated into 
Hanover, compelling the British to come to terms. 
The Swedes, too, had invaded Pomerania, whilst the 
Russians had taken Memel and were working great 
havoc and devastation. Prussian affairs looked critical, 
but the King was equal to the occasion. Marching 
westwards he took up a position on the height of 
Rossbach, and there lured the French into a battle 
in which they were totally defeated with a loss of 
4,000 killed, 7,000 prisoners, and 63 guns captured, 
while the Prussians only lost 300 men. Near 
Breslau, on the other hand, his general Bevern was 
taken prisoner and his army defeated by Prince 
Charles, the Austrians only losing 8,000 men, the 



PRUSSIAN SUCCESSES 2A& 

Prussians 5,000 killed and wounded, 3,600 prisoners, 
and 80 guns. The effect of this battle was to place 
Silesia again practically in the hands of the Austrians. 
Soon afterwards, however, the rival forces encountered 
one another at Lissa, and here the Austrians suffered 
a disastrous defeat, whole battalions being killed or 
made prisoners. While the Prussian loss was not 
more than 5,000, the Austrians lost 7,000 killed and 
wounded, 20,000 prisoners, and 134 guns. Breslau 
then fell to the Prussians, and along with it 18,000 
prisoners of war. Thus after losing about 50,000 
men, the Austrians had again to retire from Silesia. 

In the north, too, the Prussians proved equally 
successful. The French, who had threatened Magde- 
burg, were compelled to leave and the Russians 
having also retired, the Prussians soon drove the 
Swedes out of Pomerania. Thus, at the very 
moment when his downfall seemed imminent, 
Frederick succeeded in completely restoring his 
fortunes. 

Next year's campaign opened in Westphalia, where 
the French were further discomfited and driven across 
the Rhine. The Russians, however, took Konigsberg 
and overran Prussia. Frederick meanwhile took 
Schweidnitz and invaded Moravia, where he laid 
siege to Olmtitz. From this town he soon had to 
retire, Daun having marched with 50,000 men to 
its relief, and captured a convoy of 3,000 waggons 
sent for Frederick's relief. Marching rapidly across 
country, Frederick then attacked and at Zorndorf 
defeated the Russians, who lost about 19,000 men. 
After that he as rapidly returned to Saxony, 



250 MARIA THERESIA 

whither Daun had proceeded, but at Hochkirch he 
allowed himself to be surprised by the Austrians. 
The latter at daybreak entered his lines, nearly taking 
the King himself prisoner and forced the Prussians 
to retreat after a loss of 9,000 men and 10 1 guns. 
Great was the joy in Vienna over this victory ; Daun 
was publicly thanked, and had a statue erected in 
his honour ; and Lacy and Loudon — the former an 
Irishman, the latter a Scotchman — who had ably 
seconded their commander-in-chief, also received 
notable rewards. It was Loudon really who planned 
the affair at Hochkirch, and to some extent there- 
fore Frederick's discomfiture was due to his own folly, 
for before taking service with the Austrians this 
soldier had offered himself to the King of Prussia, 
who had turned from him with the remark, " That 
man's face doesn't please me ! " The Pope also took 
occasion now to renew to Maria Theresia and her 
successors the title of " apostolic King of Hungary." 
This happy event seemed to augur well for the 
success of Austria in 1759. Her allies grew more 
energetic on her behalf, and with France a new 
treaty, that of Versailles, was concluded. So self-con- 
fident did the Austrians become that they actually 
threatened various of Frederick's supporters with the 
ban of the empire. At first the campaign rather 
flagged, Daun simply watching the enemy. In June, 
however, the Russians having defeated the Prussians 
at Zullichau, advanced to join their Austrian allies. 
Frederick saw that not a moment was to be lost. 
Starting from the Oder he drove the Russians from 
their posts at Kunnersdorf, after which, thinking him- 




MAURICE COn 



FIELD-MARSHAL LACY. 

[From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy " by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 



252 MARIA THERESIA 

self secure of the victory, fie attacked the Austrians. 
Fortune was adverse to him, and he narrowly 
escaped with his life, having - two horses killed under 
him. In the course of the action he had written 
to his consort : " In two hours expect to hear of a 
glorious victory 1 " now he said, " Qu'on voie a quoi 
tiennent les victoires ! " Both sides suffered heavily, 
each losing about 20,000 men. On the side of the 
allies nearly all the loss was sustained by the Russians. 
Meanwhile in Saxony the Austrians had obtained 
possession of Dresden, and though the French were 
defeated at Minden, the main body of the Prussians 
were totally defeated by Daun at Maxen, 1 5,000 men 
being taken prisoners though few fell on either side. 

The King of Prussia was now undoubtedly in great 
distress, and if the allies had followed up their advan- 
tage with alacrity they might have brought him to 
their own terms. Misunderstandings, however, arose 
between the Russians and the Austrians, so that the 
Prussian king was able not only to recover himself, 
but to compel the Russians to leave Lower Silesia 
and retire into Poland. Nevertheless, Frederick had 
lost his best troops, and could only rely upon raw 
recruits. He had, too, only 75,000 men as against his 
opponents 250,000. 

In 1760 Loudon entered Silesia, blockaded Glatz, 
and after defeating General Fouquet invested Breslau. 
However, the approach of Frederick's brother, Prince 
Henry, compelled Loudon to raise the siege of the 
last-mentioned place. He then formed a junction 
with Daun. These two generals resolved to engage 
the Prussians without waiting for Soltikof and the 



BATTLE OF TORGAU 253 

Russians. Frederick, on the other hand, perceived 
their purpose and began to retreat. Loudon, who 
had been sent to cut off the retreat of the Prussians, 
thus found himself compelled to engage their whole 
force, and at Liegnitz he was beaten back with a 
loss of 10,000 men. The King of Prussia accordingly 
made good his escape, but in October the Russians 
invaded Brandenburg and took Berlin, so causing the 
King to leave Silesia and proceed to the defence of 
his capital. Thereupon Daun marched into Saxony 
and took up a strong position at Torgau, but here 
Frederick engaged him, in person leading his grenadiers 
to the attack. The Prussians were driven back, but 
Daun was severely wounded, and when, next day 
the Prussians, instead of retiring, occupied some 
neighbouring heights and posted guns there against 
the Austrians, the latter fell back in confusion. In 
the course of the battle at Torgau the soldiers engaged 
got so mixed up that when night came parties of 
Prussians and Austrians were to be seen amicably 
bivouacking together through inability to find their 
respective lines. The Austrians lost 20,000 killed, 
wounded, and prisoners, and the Prussians about 
13,000 of their best troops. All Saxony was, how- 
ever, now re-occupied by the latter. 

On October 25, 1760, George II. of Britain died. 
George III. had been brought up in England and did 
not care to interfere much with German politics. 
Negotiations were even started to promote peace, but 
these did not advance very far, and in 1761 the war 
went on as before. The point of attack in this campaign 
was Silesia, but Frederick acted with caution and 



254 MARIA THERESIA 

kept on the defensive. Loudon assumed the offensive 
and took Schweidnitz, but Daun in Saxony did 
little more than keep Prince Henry in check. The 
French, who during the previous year had gained 
considerable successes, this year succeeded barely in 
holding their own, Prince Ferdinand baffling all their 
efforts in Westphalia. Pitt meanwhile had resigned, 
and the British war with Spain had commenced, and 
representations were now made to Frederick to 
conclude peace. This the King of Prussia would 
gladly have done, but Maria Theresia in her elation 
declined all his proposals for accommodation. In 
the following year, however, circumstances occurred 
in Russia which gave Frederick's affairs a still more 
favourable turn. The Czarina had died and Peter III. 
ascended the Imperial Russian throne. Peter felt an 
immense admiration for Frederick, and at once for- 
sook the Austrian alliance and joined the Prussians. 
The Russians and Prussians now took the offensive 
in conjunction and prepared to retake Schweidnitz, 
whereupon Daun retired to Bogendorf and Ditmans- 
dorf. At this stage an insurrection broke out in 
Russia which cost Peter his crown and his life. The 
new ruler of Russia was Catherine II., and she with- 
out delay declared the King of Prussia to be her 
enemy and ordered the withdrawal of her troops. 
Before going, however, they managed to attack and 
dislodge the Austrians, and so enabled the Prussians to 
proceed with the siege of Schweidnitz, which surren- 
dered on the 9th of October, after the explosion of a 
powder magazine had made a breach in the walls 
and rendered further defence impracticable. With 



CONCLUSION OF PEACE 25$ 

the fall of Schweidnitz Silesia became lost to the 
Austrians. Meanwhile in Saxony Prince Henry 
had been making progress, and compelled Daun to 
sue for an armistice. The Turks also were again 
threatening Hungary. It was only natural, therefore, 
that in this position of affairs Maria Theresia became 
very anxious for peace, and this was, on February 5, 

1763, duly concluded at Hubertsburg. Silesia and 
Glatz were finally ceded to Prussia, and other places 
captured, while the prisoners of war were restored 
by either side. Thus, after a struggle which lasted 
for the better part of seven years, and after the waste 
of much blood and treasure, both Frederick and 
Maria Theresia found themselves in pretty much the 
same positions as when the war began. 

Soon after peace was concluded, on the 27th of May, 

1764, Maria Theresia's son, the Archduke Joseph, was 
elected King of the Romans, he being thus assured 
of the Imperial crown. Next year, on the Emperor 
Francis's sudden death of apoplexy at Innsbruck in 
the Tyrol, Joseph duly succeeded to the throne. As 
for Maria Theresia, henceforth she did not interfere 
much in public affairs. Her grief over the loss of 
her husband was great, and down to the time of her 
death she wore mourning and had her apartments 
draped in black. Often, too, would she descend into 
the vault where her husband's remains were interred 
and spend several hours there at a time in prayer 
and in preparation for her own end. Her contentious 
nature seemed to be completely broken and for the 
remainder of her life she strove to maintain peace, 
fostering art and science in her dominions, founding 



256 MARIA T HER ESI A 

academies, establishing hospitals, reforming the 
Church, and suppressing the inquisition and the order 
of the Jesuits. At the same time she looked after the 
state of her army, and in imitation of the Prussian 
system introduced conscription over all the Austrian 
dominions except the Netherlands, Milan, the Tyrol, 
and Hungary. 

We come now to what historians consider to have 
been a political crime — the partition of Poland. 
That country had sadly fallen from the high position 
it had attained under John Sobieski, and its inhabi- 
tants were in a very degraded state. On the death of 
their ruler, Augustus, on the 5th of October, 1763, 
Maria Theresia endeavoured to secure the crown for 
the son of the late king, but the dislike of the people 
for a foreign ruler led to the formation of factions and 
scenes of disorder. Several native claimants appeared 
on the scene, chief among whom was Count Ponia- 
towski, who had the support of Russia. The latter's 
claims being pressed forward, Maria Theresia prepared 
for war on behalf of the house of Saxony. Upon 
this the Russians and Prussians combined, invaded 
Poland, and in 1764 secured the nomination of 
Poniatovvski by their exhibition of force. Under 
these circumstances Maria Theresia refrained from 
taking final steps, and left Poland to become a scene 
of bloodshed and devastation. Four years later, 
however, the Turks declared war against Russia, but 
were soon beaten, and Maria Theresia, fearing the 
rapid growth of Russian power and despite her 
former resolve never to unite with the King of Prussia 
in any undertaking, now joined with Prussia to bring 







%™fezffi£r 






HANDWRITING OF MARIA THERESIA. 
(From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 



258 MARIA THE R ESI A 

about a pacification of Poland. Her son, the Emperor 
Joseph, himself visited Frederick in August of 1769, 
following that up next year with a second visit, and 
on both these occasions the Prussian monarch did 
all he could to allay the Austrian prejudices. The 
Turks having begged the mediation of Austria 
and Prussia, the forces of these countries entered 
Poland and declared they would protect the 
country from further Russian encroachments. The 
Russians had made exorbitant demands upon the 
Turks, including the cession of Wallachia and 
Moldavia, and now Frederick offered Russia a por- 
tion of Poland in lieu of those provinces. In due 
course the Czarina's consent was extorted, and on the 
5th of August, 1772, the convention for partition was 
duly signed at St. Petersburg. The Poles, thus 
betrayed by those who had professed to be friends, 
had to yield to their fate, the king himself even sign- 
ing his own abdication. Russia obtained north-eastern 
Poland, Frederick the district known as Western 
Prussia, while Austria got as her share of the spoil 
Southern Poland including the extensive and fertile 
districts known as Galicia and Lodomeria. Peace 
between Turkey and Russia soon followed. Diffi- 
culties as to the delimitation of their respective 
portions continued for some time to engage the 
attention of the countries concerned, Prussia and 
Austria manifesting a desire to make further encroach- 
ments, but at last in 1777 limits were finally settled. 
In reward for her services in saving Wallachia and 
Moldavia, the Turks ceded to Austria the Bukowina, 
which henceforth has formed an integral portion of 
her dominions. 



THE BAVARIAN SUCCESSION 2$C, 

With these large accessions of territory, Austria 
seemed to be triumphant. She soon, however, pre- 
pared for further aggrandisement. The death of the 
elector of Bavaria without male issue gave the requisite 
opportunity. Bavaria had long been coveted by the 
House of Austria ; now a formal claim was made 
upon practically the whole province. The Austrians 
at once seized possession and proceeded to establish 
their rights, whereupon Frederick prepared for war. 
Meanwhile the Emperor Joseph had paid an un- 
satisfactory visit to Paris, and seeing it hopeless to 
expect aid from that quarter, he proposed to Prussia 
another partition like that of Poland. The Prussian 
king would not, however, endure any further increase 
of Austrian power, and a long correspondence between 
him and the Emperor produced no effect. Troops were 
assembled and the Prussians invaded Bohemia, but 
these after a time retired again into Silesia. Maria 
Theresia desired peace and secured the mediation of 
France and Russia, with the result that a congress met 
at Teschen and arranged a treaty there on the 13th of 
May, 1779, by the terms of which the House of Austria 
renounced all their pretensions to the Bavarian suc- 
cession, but secured nevertheless the district of Bursr- 
hausen between the Tyrol and Austria proper. The 
Emperor Joseph about the same time paid a visit to 
the Czarina at St. Petersburg, and so captivated her 
that the old friendly connection between Russia 
and Austria was once more renewed. In the follow- 
ing year, on the 29th of November, 1780, Maria 
Theresia died, after great suffering endured with 
heroic fortitude, in the sixty-fourth year of her age and 



260 



MARIA THERESIA 



the forty-first of her reign. Her death was sincerely 
regretted by many millions, and the capital and 
whole empire were cast down with heartfelt affliction. 
She had a large family, six sons and ten daughters, 
but only nine of her children survived her, the two 
eldest sons being Joseph, the then Emperor, and 
Leopold who succeeded him. 




XIX 



JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 



LOSS OF THE NETHERLANDS. 



JOSEPH II. was in his fortieth year when he was 
called upon to take sole control of the government. 
He had, it is true, assumed the title of Emperor 
immediately after his father's death, but, so long as 
his mother was alive, he merely occupied the position 
of a co-regent with her. He exercised all the active 
prerogatives of a sovereign of the realm ; she never- 
theless continued to be the supreme ruling power. 
He was undoubtedly a personality, and his reign is 
chiefly famous for the many changes and reforms 
introduced into every branch of Church and State. 
Even in his clothing he was peculiar and from his 
early years he was distinguished for the strange 
costumes he wore. His manners were winning and 
he had considerable skill in diplomacy, but an over- 
weening self-confidence and conceit frequently led 
him into difficulties and absurdities. He thought 
he could emulate his rival, Frederick of Prussia, but 

he had neither the latter's strong, overmastering 

261 



262 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

character, nor his military genius, nor his mental 
acuteness. His fault was that he tried too much. 
The story is told that on one occasion, when in the 
country, he came across a ploughman engaged at 
work, whereupon he at once conceived the idea of 
trying to plough. On the man remonstrating he 
said, " No work is disgraceful, least of all that of the 
ploughman who produces one's daily bread," and to 
his companions he remarked, " You see, gentlemen, a 
ruler has to be able to do everything ! " 

Such being the spirit with which he set to work, no 
wonder that his reign saw a revolution in the internal 
arrangements of the State. Frederick of Prussia was 
right when, on hearing of Maria Theresia's death, he 
said to his Cabinet Minister : " Maria Theresia is no 
more — now a new order of things will be initiated." 
The new monarch set the army on a new footing and 
introduced into the Austrian military system that 
order and economy for which it is still notable. 
With the idea of unifying his empire he tried to 
abolish all distinctions of religion, language, and 
manners, and actually removed from Pressburg to 
Vienna the crown, sceptre, and other emblems of 
Hungarian sovereignty. The Latin and Hungarian 
tongues he abolished as official languages, replacing 
them with German. His ambition was to have one 
central administration to control all the many diverse 
nationalities and districts of his realm. He divided 
accordingly, the Austrian monarchy into thirteen 
governments, subdividing these again into lesser 
districts, over each of which he set a special authority. 
In each government, again, he established two courts 



264 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

of justice, one for the upper classes and another for 
the peasants, and over these he set various courts of 
appeal, which in turn were made subject to the supreme 
tribunal in Vienna. He gave, too, the final deathblow 
to the feudal system and relieved the lower classes of 
many grievances under which they had long groaned. 
In religion, however, perhaps the greatest reforms 
were made. Roman Catholicism was declared to be 
the dominant religion. Excessive tolerance he believed 
to be the main road to decay ; from the political 
quite apart from a dogmatic point of view, he held a 
strong religion to be a necessity. At the same time 
he lessened the Pope's authority and forbade the 
bishops to carry any Bull into execution unless it 
had been confirmed by his government. He also 
diminished the revenues of the larger bishoprics and 
increased those of the smaller ones, and he established 
four hundred new parishes. Many convents were 
suppressed and converted into hospitals, universities, 
and military depositories. Pilgrimages were for- 
bidden and the Church service much simplified. The 
churches themselves were largely deprived of their 
images and ornaments and converted again to a 
state more like that which had originally prevailed. 
Marriage was made a mere civil contract, and divorce 
was facilitated. With the dissenting Churches he did 
not actively interfere ; indeed, on the 13 th of October, 
1781, he actually published an Edict of Tolerance, by 
which Protestants and orthodox Greeks were guaran- 
teed the free exercise of their religion, and to the 
Jews even he granted many notable privileges. These 
various doings somewhat alarmed the authorities at 



266 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

Rome, and Pope Pius VI., old as he then was, felt 
constrained to repair to Vienna early in 1782 to try 
to stop the Emperor in his course. He found the latter 
inflexible, and though he was treated with all respect 
he had soon to return almost disconsolate to Rome. 
In the following year, on the 23rd of December, 1783, 
Joseph appeared " unexpected like a bomb-shell " in 
Rome and forced the Pope to sign a convention by 
which the nomination of bishops was made one of his 
prerogatives as sovereign. 

In his relations with foreign Powers and in foreign 
affairs Joseph was by no means fortunate after his 
accession. His inherent dislike for France seems to 
have become cured on the second visit which he paid 
to Paris in the first year of his reign. Partly, no 
doubt, he forced this change upon himself in order to 
secure the abrogation of the Treaty of the Barrier, 
which he had long regarded as an insult to the House 
of Austria, in that it made the latter, so to speak, 
dependent upon the maritime Powers. The fact that 
the treaty in question excluded France from the 
Netherlands did not seem to impress him. Accord- 
ingly, despite the warnings of Great Britain and the 
Dutch, he set about dismantling the fortifications of 
the Netherlands except Luxemburg, Ostende, Namur, 
and Antwerp, and got the Dutch garrisons in them 
recalled. This was in 1781. Then he made various 
encroachments with a view to increasing the bounds 
of Austrian Flanders and aroused disputes and ill- 
feeling among his northern neighbours. In 1784 
matters were so serious that Austrian and Dutch 
plenipotentiaries met at Brussels to settle them, but 



DIFFICULTIES WITH THE NETHERLANDS 267 

Joseph insisted upon the opening up of the Scheldt as 
a necessary preliminary and, some Imperial ships 
which attempted to enter the river being straightway 
captured by the Dutch, negotiations were suddenly 
broken off and both parties prepared for war. The 
Emperor was, however, prevailed upon by France to 
concede the Dutch demands, and accept instead of his 
exorbitant claims a sum of 10,000,000 guilders besides 
renouncing all right to the free navigation of the 
Scheldt beyond his own territories and his pretensions 
to Maastricht and its dependencies. 

Joseph's difficulties with the Netherlands seem to 
have led him to conceive the idea of exchanging 
these provinces for Bavaria. If this were accom- 
plished, the German dominions and Hungarian 
provinces would be united into one compact and 
solid mass, and his realms would be rounded off, so 
to speak. Prussia, of course, was the great obstacle. 
Joseph thought, nevertheless, that through France 
and Russia he might gain his object. France he 
deemed he had already on his side, and with a 
view to gain over Russia he now zealously promoted 
Catherine's schemes of aggrandisement against 
Turkey. Accordingly, when the Russians seized the 
Crimea and the Turks threatened to go to war over 
the matter, Joseph's Ministers at Constantinople de- 
clared that they would support Catherine to the 
utmost of their power, and so averted the threatened 
danger. France and Great Britain, however, inter- 
fered to prevent further dismemberment of the 
Turkish Empire, and Joseph himself was conse- 
quently foiled in his hopes of acquiring anything 



268 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

on the side of Turkey. The same unfortunate result 
fell to his lot in his efforts to acquire Bavaria, and the 
only outcome of them was to discredit him greatly 
in the eyes of the King of Prussia and the other 
German princes and States. What was called the 
Germanic Union was formed on the 23rd of July, 
1785, to maintain the indivisibility of the various 
German States, and this effectually barred all possi- 
bility of further encroachment on the part of the 
House of Austria. 

Soon after the signing of the Germanic convention 
Frederick II. died, on the 17th of August, 1786. He 
was succeeded by his nephew, Frederick William, but 
the change did not relieve Joseph from his embar- 
rassing situation. Great Britain had entered into a 
league with Prussia. The Netherlands were evincing 
more and more of a spirit of independence. Russia 
was more inclined to subvert the Turkish Empire for 
her own aggrandisement than to help Austria. France 
also had shown herself hostile to Austrian projects 
on Bavaria and Turkey. Fear of Great Britain and a 
desire to overrun the Netherlands alone induced the 
French to draw closer to the House of Austria. Joseph, 
therefore, distrustful of France and foiled in his efforts 
in the West, now turned to Russia. In May of 1787 
he visited Catherine, and the two monarchs travelled 
together through the Russian dominions, and, though 
it has never been shown that any definite plan of 
attack upon the Turks was then concerted, the latter 
seem to have become alarmed at the ostentatious 
friendship, and at once declared war against Russia. 
At first Joseph affected to remain neutral, but an 



I 




AUSTRIAN HUSSAR AND INFANTRYMAN. 
(Seven Years' War.) 



2/0 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

unsuccessful attempt by the Austrians to surprise 
Belgrade forced his hand, and on the ioth of 
February, 1788, he published a formal declaration of 
war against Turkey, pleading his engagements with 
the Empress of Russia. He immediately assembled a 
force of 200,000 men and 2,000 guns on the Turkish 
frontier, and made preparations to besiege Belgrade. 
Russia, however, was in danger on the side of 
Sweden, and could not second her ally's efforts in 
the South, and Great Britain and the Netherlands 
effectually crippled Joseph's efforts to prepare a fleet 
in the Adriatic. Venice also refused to join him in 
his enterprise. These facts combined to embarrass 
him seriously, and he delayed making any decided 
movement, and for a time maintained an inglorious 
inactivity. But in August, Loudon having assumed 
the general command, a forward movement was made, 
and after defeating the Turks at Dubitza, the Austrians 
were soon in the heart of Bosnia. Meanwhile the 
Emperor himself had been watching a body of Turks 
who had burst into the Banat, but on the latter 
attacking him at Carausebes he fell back upon 
Temeswar, leaving his artillery and baggage in the 
hands of the enemy. With these unsatisfactory 
operations the campaign ended, and in November an 
armistice was concluded. 

Next year the Austrians were more successful. In 
July a combined force of Austrians and Russians 
under the Prince of Coburg defeated a body of Turks 
at Fotzani, capturing their camp, baggage, magazines, 
and artillery, and two months later it engaged and 
totally dispersed the main army of the enemy near 



SUCCESSES OVER THE TURKS 2 J I 

Rimnik. The Prince of Coburg was made a field- 
marshal and the Russian commander Suwarof a 
count of the Empire. Loudon, in the meantime, had 
also not been inactive. Early in July he captured 
Berbir, after which he proceeded with the siege of 
Belgrade, and compelled the surrender of the garrison 
on the 9th of October. Joseph was at this time on the 
bed from which he never again rose, but was much 
revived in spirits by the news of these various suc- 
cesses. Even greater success was, however, still to 
follow. At Tobac, in Bessarabia, Princa Potemkin de- 
feated the Turks under Hassan Pasha, which victory 
was followed by the surrender of Bender, Akerman, 
Kilia Nova, and Isatza, and about the same time 
Bucharest was captured by the Prince of Coburg. 
In the hour of success, nevertheless, there was much 
room for disquiet elsewhere, for the Netherlands had 
broken into revolt, and in Hungary too there was 
much discontent. In January, 1790, accordingly, 
Joseph entered into negotiations for peace with the 
Ottoman Empire, but these had not proceeded far 
when he died. 

The severest blow to Austrian prestige in this reign 
was the loss of the Netherlands. These had been 
transferred to the control of Austria by the Peace of 
Utrecht on condition that their ancient laws and 
customs should be maintained. The whole course of 
Austrian government, on the other hand, was one of 
misrule. Under Joseph matters came to a crisis. In 
pursuance of his system of reform he completely 
subverted the ancient constitution of the Low 
Provinces, and even declared them to be an integral 



272 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

portion of the Austrian dominions. Upon this, clergy 
and laity combined to resist further encroachments, 
and Brabant became the centre of discontent. This 
was in 1787. Joseph, on hearing of the rising spirit 
of insurrection, at once bethought himself of force, 
saying, "The flame of rebellion can only be ex- 
tinguished by blood." In this feeling he was sup- 
ported by his general, d'Alton, who boasted that he 
would subjugate the whole of the Netherlands in six 
weeks. Matters, however, went on as before, except 
for occasional disturbances, until 1789, when Joseph 
precipitated a crisis by summoning an extraordinary 
meeting of the States and attempting to force their con- 
currence to an extension of the right of representation 
to towns and districts hitherto excluded with the object 
of keeping down the turbulent party and securing a per- 
manent subsidy. To this the deputies boldly declined 
to accede, unanimously declaring that " though the 
Emperor may dissolve us, we will not violate a con- 
stitution which we have solemnly pledged ourselves to 
preserve." Only the presence of the military pre- 
vented a tumult there and then, but immediately a 
plan of insurrection was formed and a declaration of 
independence issued. Chief among the leaders were 
two advocates, Van der Noot and Vonck, who 
adopted as their motto : " Pro aris et focis" In 
October hostilities commenced with the capture by 
the insurgents of the forts of Lillo and Liefgenshoek. 
At the same time their main body under Van der 
Mersch engaged the Imperial troops near Turnhut 
and completely defeated them. Soon afterwards 
Ghent was captured and St. Pierre stormed, while 



DEATH OF JOSEPH 2?$ 

Bruges and Courtray declared for the rebels. At 
Ghent a formal declaration of independence was 
then published, and almost immediate!}' afterwards 
Brussels broke out into insurrection. To cope with 
their troubles the Austrian authorities were powerless. 
Outside aid was implored but not granted. Great 
Britain refused to interfere ; Holland looked on with 
satisfaction ; Frederick William of Prussia was him- 
self one of the chief instigators of the trouble. On 
the 20th of January, 1790, accordingly, the Belgic 
confederation was formally constituted, and from that 
date Austrian control of the Netherlands may be 
said to have ceased. Exactly a month later, on the 
20th of February, 1790, the Emperor himself died 
at the early age of forty-nine, and after a short reign 
of ten years. His last words are said to have been 
these : " Lord ! Thou who alone canst read my heart, 
knowest right well that every act of mine has been 
done with a view to my subjects' welfare ! " and as an 
inscription for his tomb he suggested these words : 
" Here lies a monarch whose intentions were of the 
purest kind, but who had the misfortune to see all his 
undertakings ruined." 

To Joseph II., who died without issue, succeeded 
his next brother, Leopold, under the title of Leopold 
II. The latter was already in his forty-third year 
when he thus assumed the charge of the Austrian 
dominions. The time was one of trouble and dis- 
order. The Netherlands seemed to be irrevocably 
lost, hostilities were pending with the Turks, and in 
his own domains of Bohemia, Austria, and Hungary 
the people were almost goaded to rebellion. In 

19 



274 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD It. 

Hungary it was even argued that Joseph had forfeited 
the succession, and the disaffected exclaimed, " Hun- 
gary has no need of an Austrian king." Leopold, 
nevertheless, proved equal to the occasion. Recog- 
nising that his predecessor had been advancing too 
quickly in his reforms, and that some reaction must 
follow, he adopted a conciliatory attitude. Arrived at 
Vienna accordingly, he revived again various func- 
tions and institutions abolished by Joseph, entered 
into correspondence with the King of Prussia, and even 
asked the latter to negotiate a peace with the Turks. 
Frederick William II., however, had conceived the idea 
of acquiring Danzig and Thorn, and had assembled 
a large force in Silesia. War with Prussia seemed 
imminent, but fortunately England interfered at this 
juncture, and forced the King of Prussia to be con- 
tent with the status quo. Accordingly, on the 5th of 
August, 1790, a convention was signed at Reichen- 
bach by which Leopold agreed to an armistice with 
the Turks and to give to Frederick William an 
equivalent for any gain he might derive from the 
Porte. Soon afterwards a congress of plenipotentiaries 
from Austria, Turkey, and the maritime Powers met at 
Sistova. Difficulties arose and the King of Prussia 
sent troops to occupy Danzig and Thorn, but being 
left isolated by the other Powers he soon found it 
convenient to resume friendly relations with Austria. 
Accordingly, the congress at Sistova renewed its 
sittings, and on the 4th of August, 1791, the memor- 
able treaty of Sistova was signed, by which Leopold 
renounced his various conquests from the Turks, 
retaining only Chotzim and Old Orsova. The im- 



INTERNAL REFORMS 2/$ 

portant point about this treaty of course was the 
union thereby created between the rival houses of 
Austria and Prussia. This in turn led to Leopold's 
being unanimously elected King of the Romans and 
crowned German Emperor, October 9, 1790. 

As we have mentioned, great discontent prevailed 
in Bohemia, Austria Proper, and Hungary at the time 
of Joseph's death. The chief grievance was a new 
land tax which had been imposed. This Leopold at 
once remitted, and he also abolished a general 
seminary for education which had been instituted. 
At the same time, however, he introduced many useful 
reforms and improvements on the old system. He 
further restored to each kingdom, province, and dis- 
trict its form of government under Maria Theresia, 
and extended the edict of toleration. These various 
proceedings soon produced a change of feeling on the 
part of his subjects towards him, and before long a 
better spirit of tranquillity prevailed. The Hun- 
garians, nevertheless, proved rather difficult to deal 
with, especially owing to their endeavour to revive 
many utterly useless and antiquated privileges. For 
instance, they claimed to have their country's defence 
entrusted once more to national troops, and wished the 
King to reside a part of every year at Buda. To all such 
demands Leopold gave a firm and dignified answer. 
He conciliated the Illyrians by granting them a diet 
of their own at Temeswar, but while he granted the 
Hungarian deputies the right of joining his pleni- 
potentiaries in negotiations with the Turks, he 
declined to allow the introduction of military repre- 
sentatives, or the least infraction of the privileges 



276 JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD II. 

granted to the non - Catholics. On the 10th of 
November, 1790, he made his solemn entry into Press- 
burg, and such was his influence and behaviour there 
that the diet hailed him with every appearance of 
loyalty, and elected the Archduke Leopold as their 
Palatine. From the latter as Palatine, Leopold re- 
ceived five days later the crown of Hungary, and on 
the occasion further won the hearts of his subjects by 
promulgating a law that every sovereign should take 
the coronation oath within six months of his acces- 
sion. " The Hungarian nation," said the Primate, 
" is now united with the King ; the King with the 
nation." To which Leopold replied : " Let my people 
know that their sovereign is desirous to rule by the 
laws, yet still more anxious to rule by love." 

Having thus pacified his dominions and gained the 
Imperial crown, Leopold bethought himself of recover- 
ing the Netherlands provinces. With this in view, 
he published on the 3rd of March, 1790, a manifesto 
expressing disapproval of his predecessor's measures, 
and offering on their submission to restore their civil, 
ecclesiastical, and military constitution to its old foot- 
ing. The inhabitants, however, were too jealous of any 
foreign Power to be moved by this appeal, and there 
seemed accordingly to Leopold no other course open 
than to avail himself of force of arms. Before taking 
this extreme step he made one more attempt at a 
peaceful solution of the matter, and invoked the 
mediation of the allied Powers of Great Britain, 
Prussia, and the Netherlands. Plenipotentiaries from 
these countries accordingly met at the Hague, and 
deputies from the States were sent there to join in the 



INVASION OF BELGIUM 



277 



negotiations. Nothing was settled, nevertheless, before 
the armistice expired, and the Austrians, entering 




COUNT JOHAN'N PHILIP STADION. 



(From "The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others). 

Belgium, soon appeared before the walls of Brussels. 
On the 3rd of December this capital was entered, and 



2J% JOSEPH II. AND LEOPOLD //. 

before the close of the year all the provinces were once 
again under Austrian government. The important 
post of ambassador to Great Britain was at this time 
filled by Count Johann Philip Stadion, whose portrait 
is annexed. 

Meanwhile the Revolution broke out in France, and 
the Royal family there was in extreme danger. Marie 
Antoinette, the Queen, was a daughter of Maria 
Theresia, and therefore a sister of Leopold. The latter 
consequently could not look on with unconcern at 
her misfortunes. As a matter of fact, on the 6th of 
July, 1 79 1, Leopold made at Padua a solemn appeal 
to the other Powers of Europe on behalf of the Royal 
family of France. He called upon them to join in 
demanding the instant liberation of the King and his 
family, and to put a stop to the usurpation of power 
in France which seemed to threaten the safety of the 
other European Governments. Great Britain, how- 
ever, would not depart from her position of neutrality, 
and this made Leopold cautious, notwithstanding that 
the King of Prussia had declared his readiness to join 
him. This indecision on his part only tended to in- 
crease the fanaticism of the Republican party in France. 
Louis XVI. was swept away by the torrent, and com- 
pelled on the 25th of January, 1792, to send to .Leopold 
what was practically a declaration of war. Then, at 
last, seeing his efforts for peace fruitless, Leopold 
signed an alliance with Frederick William, King of 
Prussia, February 7, 1792. He was spared the sight of 
the succeeding fateful events in France, for on the 1st 
of March of the last-mentioned year his death occurred 
from dysentery, after an illness of only two days. 



XX 



FRANCIS II (I. OF AUSTRIA) 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 



FRANCIS, Leopold's eldest son, who succeeded him, 
was only in his twenty-fifth year when his father's 
sudden death put the hereditary dominions of Austria 
into his possession. Of him as a child his aunt, Maria 
Christina, said : " II est un des plus beaux enfans que 
fai jamais vu, fait a peiudre, grand, fort, sans etre 
gros, U7i visage rond, beaux yeux, un sourire charmaut, 
belle couleur, enfin un air vif bien port ant qui fait 
plaisir, cet enfant eleve un pen inclement par les fenunes 
qui ont ete cliez lui, en a conserve des traces, il est vif 
mais un pen craintif il a de r esprit, mats est un pen 
tardif, il me parait avoir Vhumeur et le caractere de 
son pere, il est naturcllcment timide et extremement 
sensible." In later life, however, he manifested a 
coldness and utter want of sensibility and feeling. 
Even after the battle of Wagram in 1809, when 
he was assured that " all was lost," he was able to 
maintain an attitude of stoic indifference. On the 8th 
of June he was duly crowned at Buda, and two days 

279 



28o FRANCIS II. 

later his wife, Maria Theresia, a daughter of King 
Ferdinand of Naples, also went through the same cere- 
mony. On the 14th of July he received the Imperial 
crown at Frankfurt, and on the 9th of August the 
newly-made Emperor was invested with the Bohemian 
Royal insignia at Prague. 

One of Francis's first acts was to assure the King of 
Prussia of his adherence to the principles of the recent 
alliance. His minister, Prince Kaunitz, then informed 
the French Minister of the continuance of the policy 
of the last months towards France, and on this being 
communicated to that country the Girondists com- 
pelled Louis to formally declare war against his 
nephew, which he did on the 29th of April, 1792, with 
evident reluctance and with a trembling voice. A 
few days later a French force, which had advanced as 
far as Lille and Valenciennes, fled at the first sight of 
the enemy. In July the allied army of Prussia and 
Austria, under the Duke of Brunswick, appeared near 
Coblentz, and a manifesto was issued to the effect 
that the object of the allies was to put an end to the 
state of anarchy in France, and to restore Louis XVI. 
to his legal authority. The tone of this manifesto was 
most injudicious under the circumstances, and the 
Duke of Brunswick himself disapproved of it. On 
the very day that it was communicated to the French 
Assembly Louis's abdication was demanded, and 
immediately afterwards the Tuileries were taken and 
plundered by the mob. A fortnight later Longwy 
surrendered to the Prussians, and on the 2nd of Sep- 
tember Verdun surrendered to the Austrians. Then 
ensued in Paris what have been called the Massacres 



THE FRENCH REVOLUTION 28 1 

of September, in which some fifteen hundred persons 
were murdered in cold blood, among them the beautiful 
Princess de Lamballe, one of Queen Marie Antoinette's 
favourites. Both Longwy and Verdun were, however, 
soon again lost, for after an ineffectual attack upon the 
French at Valmy, the Duke of Brunswick withdrew 
his columns and opened negotiations with Dumouriez, 
the French Commander. In reply to the Duke's pro- 
posals Dumouriez handed to the Prussian envoy the 
decree establishing a Republic, whereupon, as peace 
was now impossible and as his men were suffering 
severely from the weather and want of proper pro- 
visions, the Duke ordered a retreat, recrossing the 
Rhine at Coblentz towards the end of October. A 
month later Dumouriez defeated the Austrians near 
Mons, where, under Duke Albert of Saxe-Teschen, 
they had taken up a strongly fortified position, and 
by the end of December the whole of the Austrian 
Netherlands was in the hands of the French. 

All these events served to bring it home to the 
allies that a war with France meant something more 
than a mere military march to Paris, as the Duke of 
Brunswick had predicted. This scheme was now 
totally abandoned, especially after January i/th, 
when Louis was sentenced to death, and all hope 
of saving him and his family expired, and henceforth 
the first object of the Austrian leaders was to recover 
the provinces which they had lost. The first battle 
of 1793 was fought on March ist at Aldenhoven, in 
which the French, under Dampierre, were defeated by 
the Austrians, under the Prince of Coburg, soon after 
which the Austrians entered Aix-la-Chapelle and 



282 FRANCIS II. 

captured Liege. Then, on March 16th, Dumouriez 
defeated the Austrians at Tirlemont, but was himself 
defeated by the Prince of Coburg two days later at 
Neerwinden, after which, on March 25th, the Arch- 
duke Charles and the Prince of Coburg entered 
Brussels. Meanwhile Great Britain had also declared 
war against France, and altogether the situation of 
the French was far from being a hopeful one. 

Dumouriez having shown signs of a wish to abandon 
the Jacobin Republicans, was now superseded by the 
Convention ; but Dampierre, who next took the com- 
mand of the French troops, was no more successful. 
On the 8th of May he was attacked at Famars by the 
combined armies of Austrians, Prussians, British, and 
Dutch, under the joint command of Clairfait, the 
Prince of Coburg, and the Duke of York, and 
defeated with terrible slaughter. Dampierre him- 
self was mortally wounded, and 4,000 of his men 
were placed hors de combat. Dampierre was in 
turn succeeded by Lamarque, but he, too, sustained 
a defeat ; and having retired from Famars, took up 
a position between Valenciennes and Bouchain. 

Meanwhile Francis had been engaged with the 
King of Prussia and the Empress of Russia in another 
division of what remained of Poland. The Prussians 
had long coveted the ports of Thorn and Danzig, and 
now boldly summoned the inhabitants of these places 
to swear allegiance to their King. The remonstrances 
of the Polish Diet were simply met by a manifesto of 
the Emperor Francis, who declared his approval of 
the King of Prussia's action. Without more ado the 
three aggressive Powers called upon the Polish Diet 



PARTITION OF POLAND 283 

to draw up and sign an instrument for the alienation 
of the territories that were demanded, and, with the 
exception of a small portion, all that remained of 
Poland was thereupon transferred to Russia and 
Prussia. Austria got next to no advantage, but she 
yielded to Prussia in the matter in the hope of further- 
ing her schemes of aggrandisement elsewhere ; in 
particular, she wished an exchange of territory with 
Bavaria, and the occupation of Alsace and the French 
frontier fortresses. 

In France the next events of importance were the 
surrender of Conde to the Austrians, July 12th; the 
capitulation of Mainz to the Prussians, July 22nd ; 
and that of Valenciennes to the Austrians, August 1st. 
As for the administration of the country, terror was 
now the order of the day. " The Royalists desire 
blood," it was said ; " they shall have it ! They want 
to destroy the mountain ; the mountain will crush 
them ! " Marie Antoinette became the object of 
attack, and on October 1 6th this scion of a long line 
of Emperors, the aunt of the Emperor Francis, met 
her fate on the scaffold at the hands of the blood- 
thirsty Commune. On the same day the Austrians 
sustained a severe defeat at Wattignies, near Mau- 
beuge, by the French under Jourdan, but were 
allowed to retreat unmolested. About this time, 
too, the Prussians suddenly withdrew from their 
alliance with Austria and by so doing struck a 
severe blow at the policy of the coalition against 
France. Prussian troops, however, remained in occupa- 
tion of Alsace and the Palatinate, so preventing the 
Austrians from realising the object so dear to them. 



284 FRANCIS II. 

The scene now changes again to Poland. Early 
in 1794 Kosciuskp and other Polish patriots matured 
a scheme for the liberation of their country and soon 
collected about them a considerable, if somewhat 
irregular, body of men. These succeeded in cap- 
turing or defeating many of the Russian garrisons, 
and in May they actually set up a National Council 
for the government of the recovered lands. In 
June, however, the Prussians invaded the country 
and defeated Kosciusko at Szczekociny, and soon 
afterwards occupied Cracow, which event at length 
caused Francis II. to declare himself. The Emperor, 
finding himself foiled in the West, had now con- 
ceived the idea of abandoning his provinces in the 
Netherlands and of seeking compensation in Bavaria 
and Poland. So far as the last-mentioned country 
was concerned, he had the support of Russia, which 
began to manifest a jealousy of the ascendancy 
of Prussia, and accordingly, under the pretext of 
preventing disorder in Galicia, an army of 17,000 
Austrians straightway marched upon Brzesc and 
Dubnow. About the same time a Russian army 
marched from Lithuania and met the Poles under 
Kosciusko at Maciejowice, completely defeating them 
and taking their general prisoner, who is said on that 
occasion to have exclaimed, "Finis Polonice!" In 
fact the end was not far off. By a convention signed 
at St Petersburg, January 3, 1795, the country was 
duly divided between Prussia, Austria, and Russia, 
Prussia taking the Palatinates of Rawa and Plotzk, 
part of Masovia, including Warsaw and portions of 
Podlachia, Troki and Cracovia ; Austria getting the 



WAR WITH THE FRENCH 285 

greater part of Cracow with the town of that name, 
the Palatinates of Sandomeirz and Lublin, and part 
of those of Chelm, Podlachia and Masovia; and 
Russia obtaining the Duchy of Semigajlia, Pilten, 
Samogitia, part of the Palatinates of Troki and 
Chelm, the remainder of Vilna, Novogrodek, Brzesc, 
and Volhynia. This arrangement was then con- 
firmed by treaty, October 24, 1795. Difficulties 
still arose as to the division of Cracovia, where the 
Prussians were in possession, but these were finally 
settled under the mediation of Russia in the follow- 
ing year. 

While these events were progressing in Poland, 
the allied army of British, Dutch and Austrians, to 
the number of 160,000 men, had been fully occupied 
in the west. At the opening of the campaign of 
1794 they were posted near Trier, the Emperor 
himself being in command, accompanied by his 
brothers, Charles and Joseph, and his Ministers, 
Thugut and Trautmannsdorf. Various desultory 
conflicts took place, success sometimes favouring one 
side, sometimes the other, but no decisive movement 
was made. So inactive were the allies that it was 
even suggested that Thugut had come to an under- 
standing with the French leaders. Certain it is that 
with the departure of the Emperor from Belgium in 
June, the Netherlands became as good as lost to Austria. 
Ypres and Charleroi surrendered to the French, and 
after his defeat at Fleurus on the 26th of June, the 
Prince of Coburg retired behind the Meuse. One after 
another of the Belgian towns fell into the hands of 
the army of the Convention, and by the end of the 



286 FRANCIS II. 

year the French found an open road to Holland. 
Early next year Amsterdam was entered, the Dutch 
fleet, frozen up in the Texel, captured by a body of 
hussars, and a Provincial Government established at 
the Hague. Negotiations for peace between Austria 
and France were now attempted, but the French 
Government would not entertain them. The French 
army then crossed the Rhine, and took Mannheim, 
but was in turn driven back by the Austrians 
under General Clairfait, and its baggage, ammuni- 
tion and artillery fell into the latter's hands. Soon 
afterwards, however, for some unaccountable reason, 
the Austrian commander concluded an armistice, 
thus bringing the campaign of 1795 to a close. 
Into Italy the war had also been carried, but during 
four campaigns little was done until November 23, 
1795, when General Scherer defeated the Austrian- 
Sardinian army under De Vins, with a loss of 7,000 
killed, wounded, and prisoners. 

The Austrians were now to feel the effect of the 
generalship of Napoleon Buonaparte. This leader, 
though only twenty-six years of age, had already 
shown his capacity at the siege of Toulon. When 
he took the command at Nice, on the 27th of 
March, 1796, he found the French much dis- 
organised and in a destitute state, but by playing 
upon their imagination and by promising them rich 
rewards in the fertile plains of Italy, he soon 
worked them up into a state of enthusiasm. His 
aim was to divide the Austrians and the Sardinians, 
and then to conquer both Lombardy and Piedmont. 
The former object he soon accomplished, following 



NAPOLEON BUONAPARTE 287 

it up by forcing the King of Sardinia to come to 
terms. Peace was accordingly concluded with the 
latter at Paris on May 15th, on terms that Savoy, 
Nice, Tenda, and Beuil should be ceded to France. 
The French army was much superior to that of 
the Austrians, and the latter could do nothing. 
On May 14th Milan was entered, and on June 3rd 
Verona also submitted to the conqueror. Then 
Bologna surrendered, and the Pope thought it wise 
to open negotiations. In August, General Wurmser, 
who had left the command of the army of the 
Rhine to direct affairs in Italy, was defeated with 
heavy loss at Castiglione, and compelled to retire to 
Trent. From there, however, he set out for Mantua, 
and notwithstanding heavy losses on the way, he 
succeeded in occupying the town, and compelled 
Buonaparte to lay siege to it instead of pursuing 
his intention of entering the Tyrol and striking a 
blow at the heart of Austria. 

The campaign of 1796 on the Rhine was a some- 
what complicated one, and we can only give the 
general result. When Wurmser left for Italy the 
Archduke Charles, then but twenty-five years of age, 
took the chief command of the Austrian forces in 
Germany. This young general, destined to become 
soon so famous, then distinguished himself by 
defeating Jourdan near Wetzlar, and driving him 
across the Rhine. Owing to the defection of 
several German Princes, the Archduke, neverthe- 
less, soon found himself compelled to retire, where 
upon the French recrossed the Rhine and penetrated 
into Franconia and Bavaria. But at Wurzburg- the 



288 FRANCIS II. 

French were completely defeated by the Austrians 
under the Archduke and General Wartensleben, 
and beat a precipitate retreat, not stopping until 
they were once more on their own side of the Rhine. 
Soon afterwards an armistice was concluded. 

At the beginning of 1797 the Austrians, not dis- 
couraged by their want of success the previous year, 
made a determined attempt to relieve Mantua. At 
Rivoli a decisive battle was fought on January 14th, 
when the Austrians had again to withdraw to the 
Tyrol. Twenty days later Mantua capitulated, and 
Napoleon was left master of Italy. The Austrians, 
however, were by no means beaten. The Hungarian 
Diet met at Pressburg, elected the Archduke Joseph 
as their Palatine, and voted large supplies. Bohemia 
and the Tyrol also decided upon a levee en masse, 
and the Archduke Charles was appointed Com- 
mander-in-chief of the Austrian forces. The latter, 
nevertheless, were so slow, that before they had 
time to properly organise a defence for the Tyrol, 
Buonaparte was down upon them, and drove 
them through Gradisca and Gortz beyond the 
Save. Trieste was saved, and the 1st of April 
saw the French in Klagenfurt, the capital of 
Carinthia, and Laibach, the capital of Carniola. 
Meanwhile the Hungarian and Tyrolese levies 
had come up, and the inhabitants of various dis- 
tricts had risen against the French. Accordingly, 
fearing lest his communications in the rear might be 
cut off, Buonaparte addressed a letter to the Arch- 
duke Charles, suggesting peace. "Why," he said, 
"should we go on cutting one another's throats to 



PEACE OF CAMP 10 FORM 10 289 

serve the interests or the passions of a nation which 
is herself exempt from the evils of war?" (Great 
Britain). The Archduke was not in a position to 
decline the proposal, and at Judenburg, only a few 
days' march from Vienna, an armistice was on the 
7th of April concluded. Eleven days afterwards pre- 
liminaries of peace were signed at Leoben. By the 
terms of these the Austrian Netherlands were ceded 
to France, and the Emperor Francis acknowledged 
the right of the latter country to the occupation of 
the left bank of the Rhine and of Savoy. A Cisalpine 
Republic was also established in Italy, and, as some 
compensation for her losses, Austria received the city 
of Venice, the Venetian Isles in the Adriatic, and 
Istria and Dalmatia. Six months later, on the 17th 
of October, these articles were duly confirmed by the 
Peace of Campio Formio. With the conclusion of 
this Peace ended alike the war in Italy and the first 
continental war of the Revolution. The French 
Republic was triumphant, and Napoleon Buonaparte 
had established his reputation. But what was of 
especial importance to the German Empire was that 
the rights of its princes had been sacrificed by the 
House of Austria in order to accomplish its own 
aggrandisement on the side of Venice. 

Next year saw the French in Rome and the expul- 
sion of the Pope, and later on the complete subjuga- 
tion of Switzerland. These events, together with 
Buonaparte's expedition to Egypt and the capture of 
Malta, aroused the Russians, who formed alliances 
with Great Britain and the Porte, and undertook 
to assist Austria if she too joined the coali- 

20 



29O FRANCIS II. 

tion. Early in 1799 the Russian troops advanced, 
and on the Directory requesting explanations from 
Austria, and not receiving a satisfactory reply, 
French troops at once prepared to invade the Tyrol. 
They penetrated as far as the frontier, but at 
Stockach, on the 25th of March, they were com- 
pletely defeated by the Archduke Charles, and 
compelled to recross the Rhine. In Italy too the 
campaign of this year ended in favour of the 
Austrians, who, after a hard fought battle at Magano 
on the 5th of April, completely defeated the French 
under Scherer, this General losing within less than a 
fortnight nearly half of his army. Now Suvaroff 
and his men joined the Austrians, and under the 
Russian General's leadership one victory succeeded 
another, the climax being reached on June 12th at 
Trebbia, when the French lost 18,000 men, and found 
themselves forced to retreat to Firenzuola. Two 
months later the Austrian-Russian army defeated 
Joubert at Nevi, that general himself being killed. 
Then again in August a Russian army of 40,000 men 
under Korsakoff entered Switzerland in conjunction 
with 30,000 Austrians ; but this leader was incapable, 
and after losing the greater part of his army and 100 
guns, was forced back across the Rhine at Schaff- 
hausen. Suvaroff, however, with his Italian army, 
scaled the St. Gothard, diverted the French pursuit 
after Korsakoff, and, having joined the remnants of 
the Russian forces together, marched home. Soon 
afterwards the Czar, disgusted with his losses, with- 
drew from the coalition, and this event, combined 
with the return of Buonaparte from Egypt, im- 



MARENGO AND HOHENLINDEN 29 1 

mediately tended to place French affairs in a better 
position again. 

Buonaparte, returned to France, was not long in 
proving himself to be the most important person 
there. Being created First Consul, he first of all 
affected a desire for peace, but finding his attempts 
to negotiate with Great Britain and Austria futile, he 
soon prepared for war. Crossing the Alps in four 
columns, he entered Milan June 2, 1800, and re- 
established the Cisalpine Republic. The Austrians 
under General Melas found themselves in danger of 
being cut off by the French, and gave battle to the 
latter at Marengo, June 14th. In consequence of 
this battle Melas felt himself obliged to negotiate 
for an armistice. Piedmont, Lombardy, and Genoa 
were abandoned, and on the Austrians retiring 
beyond the Mincio, Napoleon returned to Paris. A 
month later an armistice was also concluded for the 
Austrian armies on the Rhine, which under General 
Kray had sustained repeated repulses. It was part 
of the arrangements of the latter that the French 
should occupy Swabia, Bavaria, and Franconia, to- 
gether with the district of the Rhine. In November 
this armistice was terminated by the French, and on 
December 3rd the French under Moreau completely 
defeated the Austrians at the battle of Hohenlinden, 
in which the latter lost 7,000 killed, 11,000 prisoners, 
and 100 guns. Another armistice was then concluded, 
and shortly afterwards hostilities from the side of Italy 
were also suspended. On the 9th of February followed 
the peace of Luneville, by which the Adige was made 
the boundary of the Austrian possessions in Italy and 



292 



FRANCIS II. 



the independence of the Batavian, Helvetian, Cisalpine, 
and Ligurian republics was proclaimed. A year later 
the peace of Amiens also put an end to the war so far 
as Great Britain was concerned. 




XXI 



FRANCIS II. (I. OF AUSTRIA — continued) 



AUSTRIA MADE AN EMPIRE 



NOT for long was Europe allowed to remain in 
peace. France was isolated, in an attitude of defiance, 
and Napoleon by his arbitrary conduct soon roused 
into action the dormant spirit of hostility towards him. 
At first it was Great Britain only which renewed the 
struggle, that country going to war with France in 
May of 1802, but by degrees other Powers also be- 
came involved. Austria for the time being preserved a 
peaceful attitude, occasionally even acting in harmony 
with France. The Austrians required a period of quiet 
in order to recover from the evil effects of those last 
years of warfare, and they did their utmost to maintain 
a policy of peace. 

In 1804, however, a great change was introduced 
with regard to the position of the Austrian ruler. 
Recent events had produced a decided weakening of 
the bonds between the Emperor and the Germanic 
princes, and gradually thrown the former back upon 
his hereditary dominions. The desire for a greater 

293 



294 FRANCIS II. 

unity among these and closer connection with their 
head became more and more felt, and only wanted 
the necessary impulse in order to have it realised. 
When, accordingly, on the 18th of May, 1 804, Napoleon 
assumed the title of Emperor, Francis II. also, fore- 
seeing that it was a possible future occurrence that a 
Prince of the House of Austria might fail to acquire 
the Imperial dignity, and in order to guard against 
his family occupying an inferior position to that of 
the royal family of France, assumed the title of 
hereditary Emperor of Austria, and as such he was 
duly proclaimed on the nth of August following. Both 
sovereigns then recognised each other's titles, and 
from that date the House of Austria held a dignity 
coextensive with those of the royal families of 
France and Russia. Haydn's hymn, " Gott ei'halte 
unsern Kaiser" composed in 1797, now became truly 
national and Austrian, and henceforth the monarch 
was spoken of not as King of Hungary and Bohemia, 
but as Emperor of Austria. 

As has been mentioned, great though Austria's 
desire for peace was, she soon saw that another war 
with France was inevitable. Great Britain felt that 
single-handed she could only defend her own shores 
and rule the seas. Any decisive pressure, so far as the 
Continent was concerned, she was unable to bring to 
bear upon France. Pitt, accordingly, who was at the 
head of affairs, strove his utmost to form another 
coalition between the Cabinets of London, Vienna, and 
St. Petersburg, and, if possible, also of that of Berlin. 
The last was somewhat doubtfully disposed, because 
Napoleon had endeavoured to form an alliance with 



COMBINATION AGAINST FRANCE 295 

the King of Prussia, promising him additions to his 
dominions and the title of Emperor. Pitt's scheme, 
shortly, was to wrest from France the countries which 
she had subjugated since the commencement of the 
Revolution, to render these countries proof against 
further aggrandisement, and to establish settled 
principles of international law. This straightforward 
and definite scheme enlisted the sympathy of the 
Czar Alexander, and on the iith of April, 1805, an 
alliance between Great Britain and Russia was con- 
cluded at St. Petersburg. To this the Austrian 
Emperor acceded on the 9th of August of the same 
year, though for some time yet he manifested to 
Napoleon a desire for peace. Frederick William III., 
on the other hand, would not relinquish his position 
of neutrality, and adopted a policy of doing nothing. 
Meanwhile the French Emperor himself had assumed 
the crown of Lombardy and was carrying out his 
ambitious designs in Italy. 

By the month of September, 1805, British, Dutch, 
Swedes, Russians and Austrians were all in motion. 
Their plans were arranged on a grand scale and were 
directed both against France and Italy. Austria 
sent an army of 120,000 men under the Archduke 
Charles to Italy, a second of 35,000 under the Arch- 
duke John to the Tyrol, and a third of 80,000 under 
the Archduke Ferdinand and General Mack to Ger- 
many. At the same time an army of 45,000 British, 
Russians, and Swedes operated in Northern Germany, 
other two Russian armies of 60,000 men each pro- 
ceeded towards the Danube, and still another of 
British and Russians landed near Naples. The ob- 



296 FRANCIS II. 

jective of the first and last mentioned shows that 
the Austrian authorities conceived that Italy would in 
all probability be the chief scene of operations. In 
this, however, they were mistaken, for Napoleon him- 
self took charge of the 190,000 French forces employed 
in the German campaign. These last soon crossed 
the Rhine, and by the beginning of October were on 
the Danube, marching in three divisions upon Munich, 
Neuburg, and Donauworth. Mack, meanwhile, had 
entered Bavaria, and suddenly found himself cut off 
in his rear, being completely blockaded by Napo- 
leon at Ulm. Repulsed in all his efforts to break 
through the French lines, and finding his position to 
be inextricable, Mack surrendered to Napoleon on 
October 20th with some 24,000 men, and on the same 
day Prince Ferdinand, with the remainder of the 
Austrian forces, was surrounded near Nordlingen and 
also compelled to surrender. While these events 
were in progress, the Russians under Kutusoff had 
likewise sustained reverses and been forced back from 
the Danube. The road to Vienna was now open, and 
on November 13th Murat and Lannes entered the 
Austrian capital without resistance. 

From Vienna, without loss of time, the French pro- 
ceeded after the Austrian -Russian army under the 
two Emperors, which had taken up a strong position 
between Olmiitz and Olschun. There negotiations 
took place between the King of Prussia and the 
allies, and the former at one moment actually con- 
sented to join the coalition. When the time came 
for action, however, Frederick William neglected to 
send the requisite assistance, and the Russians and 



BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ 2gj 

Austrians were left to contend with Napoleon alone. 
The decisive battle was fought at Austerlitz on the 
2nd of December where the allies were totally 
defeated with a loss of 12,000 killed or wounded, 
15,000 prisoners, and 80 guns. This disaster, 
following upon the capitulation of Ulm, seems to 
have caused the two Emperors to completely lose 
their heads, and, despite the fact that an army of 
80,000 men under the Archdukes Charles and John 
was approaching from Hungary, while another of 
20,000 was advancing from Bohemia, Francis pro- 
ceeded in person on the 4th of December to the French 
camp. Here by a watchflre he found Napoleon, who 
said, " I must receive your Majesty in the only palace 
I have inhabited these two months," to which the 
Emperor graciously replied, " You make so good use 
of it that you must find it very pleasant." An armis- 
tice was then concluded on terms that the French 
should occupy Austria, Venice, and portions of 
Bohemia, Moravia, and Hungary, that the Russians 
were to evacuate Moravia, Hungary, and Galicia, and 
that peace negotiations were to be opened at Nikols- 
burg. Soon afterwards, on December 26th, the peace 
of Pressburg was signed, by which the Austrian Em- 
peror gave up Venice and its territories to the kingdom 
of Italy, of which Napoleon was recognised as king, 
and among various cessions yielded to Bavaria the 
Vorarlberg, Tyrol, with Brixen and Trent, and other 
districts. But the most important consequences of 
this peace, so far as the present volume is concerned, 
was the completion of the overthrow of the German 
Empire. This had been materially led up to by the 



298 FRANCIS II. 

disunion of the different States under the influence of 
the Reformation. The growth of the Prussian kingdom, 
and the temporary diminution of the influence of the 
House of Austria, especially after the treaties of 
Campo Formio and Luneville, also tended to weaken 
the mutual bond of union. Then, too, the cession to 
France of the left bank of the Rhine was a fact of 
large importance. On the 12th of July, 1806, a treaty 
was signed at Paris by which the heads of the twelve 
sovereign houses of the Empire declared themselves 
perpetually severed from the German Empire and 
united together under the protection of the French 
Emperor as the notorious Rheinbund, or Confederation 
of the Rhine, with a diet of its own to meet at Frankfurt 
This was followed almost immediately afterwards by 
a declaration from the Emperor Francis at Vienna 
that henceforth he considered himself released from 
all connection with the Germanic body. He thereupon 
resigned the Imperial Crown and government, which 
had long been little more than outward ornament. 
Such was the end of the Holy Roman Empire. In 
future we must speak not of Francis II., German 
Emperor, but of Francis I., Emperor of Austria. 

The peace of Pressburg could not endure. To the 
House of Austria it was deeply humiliating, and the 
loss of the Tyrol especially weighed heavily upon 
the minds of the Austrian rulers. Then the Con- 
federation of the Rhine was viewed as an insult by 
Prussia, who had not even been consulted in the 
matter. Russia, too, could not look on with un- 
concern while Napoleon pursued his scheme of 
general conquest and a universal empire under the 



PEACE OF TILSIT 29Q 

leadership of France. What precipitated matters, 
however, was Napoleon's restoration of Hanover to 
Great Britain. So soon as Frederick William heard 
of this he sent an ultimatum to Napoleon requiring 
the evacuation of Germany by the French, a request 
which of course meant war. Within ten days, how- 
ever, the campaign was decided by the battles of Jena 
and Auerstadt, October 14, 1806, in which the 
Prussians lost 30,000 men killed, wounded, and pri- 
soners, and nearly all their guns and stores. On 
October 27th Napoleon entered Berlin, and a month 
later his army had reached the Weichsel. Meanwhile 
a Russian army of 90,000 men had entered Prussian 
Poland, and at Eylau a fierce battle was fought on 
February 8, 1807, in which enormous losses were 
sustained by both the French and the Russians, 
the former, nevertheless, claiming the victory. 
Napoleon then sought an armistice, but the 
Russian general Bertrand replied " that his 
master had not sent him to negotiate, but to fight," 
and on the 26th of April a convention was signed 
between Russia and Prussia at Bartenstein. On 
the 14th of May the decisive battle of Friedland 
was fought, which compelled the Russians to sue 
for an armistice. Soon afterwards conferences took 
place between the Czar and Napoleon, and on the 
9th of July the peace of Tilsit was concluded between 
them. 

Napoleon was now absolute lord on the continent 
of Europe, and on the 21st of November, 1806, issued 
his famous Berlin Decree, declaring the British Isles 
in a state of blockade, that being followed on the 



300 FRANCIS II. 

17th of December, 1807, by his Milan Decree to the 
same effect. This continental system of Napoleon's, 
which aimed at the complete commercial isolation of 
Great Britain, led, of course, to the latter country 
being in a state of war with all the European Powers. 
Even the Austrian Minister quitted London in 
January of 1808, and British commerce was for the 
time excluded from the ports of Russia, Prussia, 
Denmark, Germany, Holland, France, Italy, and 
Dalmatia. As is well known, however, the con- 
tinental system completely failed to work the effect 
desired, as Great Britain readily found outlets for her 
energy elsewhere. 

Austria meanwhile had been silently preparing to 
renew the struggle at the first opportune moment. 
This seemed, at length, to come in 1808 when the 
British were engaging all Napoleon's energies in the 
Spanish peninsula. Austria had meanwhile completely 
reorganised her regular army, bringing it up to a 
strength of 400,000 men, and in the summer of the 
last-mentioned year the Archduke Charles had suc- 
ceeded in establishing the Landwehr militia in 
number nearly equal to that of the troops of the line. 
These preparations had not escaped Napoleon's 
notice, and on the 15th of August, 1808, he had even 
sent angrily to Metternich and asked, " What does 
your Emperor want ? " to which the other coolly 
replied, " He wants you to respect his ambassadors." 
A war with Austria was not at all agreeable to 
Napoleon under then existing circumstances and he 
attempted to avert it. Austrian spirits, on the other 
hand, had risen and the patriotism of the people was 



ANDREAS HOFER 301 

not to be restrained. Numerous were the national and 
landwehr songs of those days. It was at this time that 
Henry Collin composed his " Wehrmannslieder," and 
that Count Chorinsky, George Fellinger, and Castelli 
wrote their war songs. What spirit is there in — 

" Habsburg's Thron soil dauernd steh'n, 
Oestreich soil nicht untergeh'n ! 
Auf ihr Volker, bildet Heere ! 
An die Grenze, fort zur Wehre ! " 

and in — 

" Oesterreich, wohl bist du mein, 
Oesterreich, wohl bin ich dein, 
Trennt mich von dir nicht Noth, 
Nichts als der Tod ! " 

By March, 1809, all was in readiness. On the 27th 
of that month the Austrian Minister presented to 
the French Government a formal declaration of the 
grievances which Austria had suffered at the hands 
of France since the peace of Pressburg, and soon 
after manifestoes and addresses were published by 
the Emperor and the Archduke Charles to the nation 
and the army. With the outbreak of the war an 
insurrection occurred among the Tyrolese headed by 
Andreas Hofer, and near Innsbruck the French were 
surprised by the natives, and lost over 8,000 men. 
Accordingly, when the Austrian forces entered the 
Tyrol, they found the country already free from its 
foreign yoke. About the same time the main body of 
the Austrians invaded Bavaria, entering Munich on the 
1 6th of April, and came face to face with the French 
and Bavarians. After various combats the Austrians 
were compelled to retire to the Palatinate, and 



302 FRANCIS II. 

Napoleon once more marched upon Vienna, which 
city he duly reached and entered on the ioth of May. 
For a second time Napoleon took up his quarters 
at Schonbrunn, and one of his first acts from this 
place was to issue an order dissolving the Austrian 
Landwehr. He also issued a proclamation to the 
Hungarians, promising them their independence if 
they revolted against the House of Austria, but this 
proclamation had no effect. 

After the capture of Vienna the whole of the right 
bank of the Danube from Linz to the Hungarian 
frontier was in the hands of the French. The 
Austrians, however, still held control of the lands to 
the left. Here on the famous Marchfeld, to the north 
of Vienna, the Archduke Charles had taken up his 
position, and here, where formerly Rudolph of Habs- 
burg had triumphed over Otakar, the fate of Austria 
was once more to be decided. The Danube at this 
point has many islands, the largest of which is that of 
Lob Aue. This island the French occupied, and by 
the 20th of May they had thrown a bridge across to 
the mainland between the villages of Aspern and 
Esslingen, themselves crossing thereby on the 2ist. 
Near the villages mentioned fierce battles ensued, 
but neither side gained any decided advantage. 
Napoleon failed to move the Austrians and was 
forced to retire to the island of Lob Aue. The 
losses on both sides were tremendous ; each losing 
over 24,000 men in killed and wounded. Matters 
remained stationary until the beginning of July, when 
the French, having again established themselves on 
the mainland, fought on the 5th and 6th the battle of 




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304 FRANCIS II. 

Wagram, in which the Austrians were completely de- 
feated. A week later another engagement was fought 
near Znaym, in which the Austrians were again 
defeated, after which an armistice was concluded 
to allow of peace negotiations being made. 

Meanwhile the French had been equally success- 
ful elsewhere, quelling the Tyrolese revolt, and in 
Italy defeating the Austrians on the Piave on the 8th 
of May. At the same time the Russian-Polish army 
had driven the Austrians from Leopol and Sando- 
mierz and taken possession of Galicia. The armistice 
at Znaym, however, also put an end to the war in 
these quarters. As to the negotiations, these were 
protracted over three months, but at length, on the 
14th of October, 1809, the peace of Schonbrunn 
was signed, by which Austria made various fresh 
cessions of territory to France, Russia, the Con- 
federation of the Rhine, and Saxony. To France 
were ceded Gortz and Montefalcone, Trieste, Car- 
niola, portions of Carinthia, Croatia, and Dalmatia, 
and the lordship of Rhaziins ; to Russia, part of 
Eastern Galicia ; to the Confederation, Salzburg, 
Berchtesgaden, and a portion of Upper Austria ; 
and to Saxony part of Bohemia and the whole of 
Western Galicia together with a part of Eastern 
Galicia, and the town of Cracow. The feeling 
in Austria over this peace was one of anguish. 
At the same time the inhabitants had learned the 
extent of their resources, and in the brave Landwehr 
troops who had fought like the picked men of the 
army, though disbanded on the 23rd of December, 
1809, they saw hope for the future. 



306 FRANCIS II. 

The bitterest drop in the cup of misfortune was 
the resignation of the Tyrol and Vorarlberg to a 
foreign foe. In these districts a second revolution 
had broken out, and renewed victories over the 
French and Bavarians had been won, and, though 
on the conclusion of the armistice of Znaym the 
Austrians evacuated the region, Hofer and his men 
still continued the struggle. By November, how- 
ever, they had been driven from all their positions 
and were forced to announce their submission. 
Then a series of executions ensued, Hofer himself 
being tried by court-martial at Mantua and shot, 
the 20th of February, 1810. Though unsuccessful, 
this struggle had its good result, and the sufferings 
and trials of the faithful Tyrolese undoubtedly 
caused an outburst of patriotic feeling which ex- 
tended in course of time far beyond the bounds of 
the Austrian dominions. 

An event now occurred which tended to check 
the hostile feeling towards France and promote 
peace and friendship between the Austrians and 
the French. That event was the marriage, on 
the 17th of March, 18 10, of Napoleon with the 
Archduchess Maria Louisa, daughter of the 
Austrian Emperor. Josephine, whom Napoleon 
had married in 1796, had no children, and in 
order to perpetuate his dynasty he had formally 
announced the dissolution of his marriage with her. 
Soon afterwards he sought the hand of a Russian 
Grand Duchess, but his proposal being coldly re- 
ceived he then bethought himself of marrying a 
daughter of either the King of Saxony or the 



BIRTH OF NAPOLEONS HEIR 



307 



Emperor of Austria. The latter course he finally 
adopted, the young Empress on her marriage being 
only eighteen years of age. A year later, on the 
20th of March, 181 1, a son was born of this union, 
the event being equally honoured in Paris and 
Vienna. To this son was given the name of 
Napoleon, and also the title of King of Rome. 




XXII 

FRANCIS I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA {continued) 
RIVALRY WITH PRUSSIA 

With the disastrous retreat of the French from 
Russia in 1812,. the turning-point in Napoleon's 
career of success was passed. Austrian troops had 
indeed taken part in that campaign, but only in 
accordance with the stipulations of the engagements 
between France and Austria and not out of any feel- 
ing of hostility to Russia. At the same time there is 
little doubt that those who directed Austrian affairs 
were only waiting for a favourable opportunity to 
break the French alliance. Be this as it may, 
January of 18 13 saw the Russians at Wilna, in 
pursuit of the French, and the latter's Austrian allies 
under Prince Schwartzenberg in full retreat along the 
Narew to Pultusk. Warsaw was entered by the 
Russians on the 8th of February. Almost imme- 
diately afterwards the Austrians concluded an 
unlimited armistice and retired into Galicia. About 
the same time the Russians concluded an offensive 

and defensive alliance with the Prussians, and the 

308 



WAR RENEWED WITH FRANCE 309 

beginning of March saw the evacuation of Berlin 
by the French and its peaceful occupation by the 
Russians. Meanwhile the eyes of all were turned 
upon Austria, the great augmentation of whose forces 
and other warlike preparations betokened something 
more than a defensive neutrality. The world was 
not kept long in suspense. On the nth of August 
Count Metternich formally handed to the Count de 
Narbonne at Prague a declaration of war against 
France. A treaty of alliance between Austria, 
Russia, Prussia, and Great Britain was the con- 
comitant of this declaration. 

The Prince Royal of Sweden now took the com- 
mand in Northern Germany, and the French under 
Napoleon retreated before the Russians to Dresden. 
Upon this town the allied troops at once made an 
attack, but it proved to be too strongly defended. At 
Kulm, however, the French under Vandamme were 
completely defeated, with a loss of 10,000 prisoners 
and 60 guns ; and near Jauer Bliicher defeated 
Marshal Macdonald, with a loss of 18,000 prisoners 
and 103 guns. The result of these victories was to 
free Silesia and enable the allies to make a more 
decided advance. In September, at Jiiterbock, the 
French were again defeated, with a loss of 16,000 
men, and after various other actions Napoleon finally 
quitted Dresden. An important accession now fell 
to the allies in Bavaria, which sank its old hostility to 
Austria and entered into an alliance with her, and 
Holland also broke into revolt, supplanting the 
French flag in their towns by the Dutch amid shouts 
of "Oranje boven!" ("Orange uppermost!") The 



310 FRANCIS /., EMPEROR 0E AUSTRIA 

Tyrolese also rose, and the Austrians regained the 
whole of Istria and the Dalmatian coast, including 
Trieste. Well might Napoleon now exclaim, " All the 
world is against me ! " 

These various successes enabled the Allies next 
year to carry the war right into the heart of France, 
and after defeating the French armies sent to oppose 
them they in due course reached Paris. This capital 
was entered by the Allies on the 31st of March, 18 14, 
and immediately afterwards a declaration was issued 
by the Russian Emperor to the effect that they would 
no longer treat with Napoleon or his family, though 
they would respect the ancient integrity of France and 
its legitimate kings. A provisional government was 
then established, and on April 4th Napoleon formally 
abdicated his Imperial dignity. He retired to Elba 
on the 20th of the same month. The Peace of Paris 
followed on the 30th of May, by which France was 
restricted to its boundaries as at the 1st of January, 
1792, Belgium was given to Holland, and the German 
States were recognised as an independent federal 
union, while Austria regained her northern Italian 
possessions together with Venice as a maritime 
dependency, and the kingdom of Sardinia was 
restored under Victor Emanuel. 

The weak point in the arrangement, so far as 
relates to Austria, was the anomalous position of 
Joachim Murat, King of Naples, who, notwithstanding 
his close relationship to Napoleon, was allowed to 
retain his crown. The reason given for this allowance 
was of course the assistance he had accorded Austria 
against the French. Even after the Peace of Paris, 



ABDICA TION OF MURA T 3 1 1 

on the other hand, Great Britain had refused to 
recognise him, and he undoubtedly was in a precarious 
position. Whether he was a party to Napoleon's 
escape from Elba matters not, but at all events he 
was early in 1 8 1 5 up in arms and threatening Rome. 
On Napoleon's landing in France, too, and reinstate- 
ment in the affections of his French subjects, Murat 
made no further concealment of his feelings and 
declared that his and Napoleon's causes were one. 
On the 19th of March he was at the head of his 
troops at Ancona and within the Pope's dominions. 
The latter at once appealed to Austria for aid, which 
country then declared war. Murat now tried to 
raise a universal revolt for independence in Italy, 
but in this respect his efforts only proved partially 
successful. However, early in April he was in 
Florence with the Austrians in retreat before him, 
but at Ferrara the latter made a stand, and the Neapoli- 
tans were repulsed with heavy loss and driven from 
all their works. The Austrians then entered Bologna, 
and, advancing in their victorious career, by the 
middle of May they had dispersed the entire Neapoli- 
tan army. Murat was now compelled to abdicate, 
and his dominions were handed over to Ferdinand 
IV. of Sicily, who entered Naples on the 17th of June 
after an absence of nine years. In the latter half of 
the same year, nevertheless, Murat conceived the 
insane idea of recovering Naples in the same manner 
in which Napoleon had temporarily recovered his 
dominions. He accordingly landed on the Calabrian 
coast with some twenty-eight men, but instead of 
obtaining accessions to his standard the people rose 



312 FRANCIS I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 

against him and took him prisoner. About a week 
later he was tried by court-martial and shot, his death 
being apparently little regretted. Meanwhile the 
French had been overthrown at Waterloo, and though 
the Austrians were too far removed from that scene 
of action to lend much material help, they assisted 
the cause of the Allies by overrunning Alsace and 
inflicting severe chastisement on the inhabitants 
who showed a hostile disposition towards them. 

In April of 1816 the court of Vienna was thrown 
into mourning by the death at Verona of the 
Emperor Francis's second wife after a lengthy illness. 
She had borne a high character for the performance 
of her various duties and was much regretted. Not 
long, however, did the Austrian Emperor remain a 
widower, for before the end of the year he married 
a Princess of Bavaria, who, it is said, on her 
marriage refused, out of consideration for the 
distressed state of her subjects, to have any expensive 
fetes or celebrations. This marriage undoubtedly 
tended greatly to further consolidate the recently 
formed friendship between two houses which had 
long harboured animosity to each other. At the 
same time the finances of Austria were placed on 
a new and improved footing, paper money being 
abolished and a national bank created. Much hard- 
ship, nevertheless, had to be endured still for many 
a day before the country could recover from the 
financial strain put upon it by the late disastrous wars. 
Meawhile Vienna had been selected as the place of 
meeting for the congress which was to settle the 
affairs of France and the other nations of Europe, 



AUSTRIAN EMPEROR AND GERMANY 313 

and in 1818 the French were finally relieved of the 
occupation of their country by the allied Powers. 
From the point of view of the house of Habsburg, 
the most notable change made was undoubtedly the 
ceasing of the Austrian Emperor to be head of 
Germany as already mentioned. It was noticed at 
the time as a curious coincidence that in the Kaiser 
Saal at Frankfurt, where were hung the portraits of 
the different German Emperors, Francis II. occupied 
the last free space, and that in the Church of St. 
Stephen at Vienna, where the statues of the Em- 
perors are placed in niches, the same monarch also 
occupied the last available one. It was also recalled 
that when Francis was crowned German Emperor the 
crown had sat so painfully on his head during the 
ceremony that he had been obliged to relieve himself 
by taking it off. As indicative of the changed rela- 
tions, we may quote the words of the Austrian Minister 
who presided at the Diet of Frankfurt. He there said : 
" Germany is not destined to form one dominant 
power, but as little is it wished that its union should 
be a mere political league of defence. Germany is 
summoned to form a league of States, to secure the 
nationality of the whole. It will be our duty to hold 
sacred this twofold object ; respect for the various 
races of people and various governments of Ger- 
many, and equal respect for the great uniting league 
which upholds and supports our nationality." He 
further solemnly declared on behalf of the Emperor of 
Austria that the latter merely regarded himself as in 
all respects an equal member of the league, and did 
not wish to enjoy any political privilege as president 



314 FRANCIS I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 

of the diet. This attitude may be said to have been 
fairly well preserved on the part of Austria, though 
as events have proved it did not preserve the German 
States from the eventual aggrandisement of another 
and more energetic member of the same confederacy. 
As for the German diet, it was long before it settled 
down to regular business, and a French ambassador 
of the day on being asked what the diet did, replied : 
" lis parlent — Us font de superbes oraisons voild tout." 

The completion and consolidation of the organisa- 
tion of the Germanic league was by no means a 
simple matter. Politicians were trying to do an 
impossibility, namely, to reconcile the independence 
and inviolability of the different States forming the 
league with subjection to a central authority. Another 
point of difficulty was of course the preponderating 
influence of Austria and Prussia in the councils of the 
realm. Almost a crisis arose in 18 19 over the institu- 
tion of a central commission at Mainz, with power to 
prosecute inquiries in all parts of Germany concern- 
ing the " demagogical intrigues " supposed to be in 
action, to examine any persons whatsoever as witnesses 
and to punish offenders no matter to what State they 
belonged. Though this measure was actually insti- 
tuted, it was not without much heartburning on the 
part of the lesser States. Next year the " final Act " 
regulating the basis of the German confederation 
was signed by the representatives of the different 
States concerned, after no less than thirty-one sittings 
under the presidency of Prince Metternich. This 
final Act contained sixty-five articles, and among 
the chief of its provisions were that no member 



AFFAIRS IN ITALY 315 

was to have the power of withdrawing from the 
league which was to be an indissoluble one, and that 
no new member was to be admitted without the 
unanimous concurrence of the members. A per- 
manent council or diet of seventeen ministers was 
also established, with special control over the internal 
and external relations of Germany, and provision was 
also made for the keeping up of an armed federal 
force. . 

At a somewhat earlier period, in May of 1817, a 
form of representative government had been granted 
by Austria to the provinces of Galicia and Lodomeria, 
formed after the style of that which had been set up 
by Joseph II. This constitution comprised four 
estates or orders of prelates, barons, knights, and 
deputies from the cities. The last, and one each of 
the three higher estates, were to be elected for six 
years ; the three others for only three years. The 
deputies were to be elected by the States, and were 
to be paid salaries. 

We have now once more to turn to Italy. After 
the expulsion of King Murat the Congress of 
Vienna had formally dismembered Italy, assigning 
Sardinia to her former king ; Lombardy and Venice 
to Austria ; Modena, Reggio, and other principalities 
to one member of the house of Austria and Tuscany 
to another ; Parma, Piacenza, and Guastalla to the 
Ex-Empress of the French, Maria Louisa ; J:he Papal 
States to the Pope ; and the Two Sicilies to their 
former king. A national part}* had, however, been 
growing up and gaining in strength, and it was soon 
seen that the Italians would not remain quiet under 



3l6 FRANCIS /., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 

their foreign rulers. Towards the end of 1820 the 
bombshell did, as a matter of fact, burst — in Naples. 
Austria, Russia, and Prussia immediately issued a 
joint note condemnatory of the revolutionary move- 
ment, and offered to meet the king of the Two 
Sicilies at Laybach with a view to mediation. This 
meeting took place in due course, and it was then 
resolved that Austrian troops should occupy the 
Neapolitan territory unless the old order of things 
was restored. This restoration, nevertheless, served 
only to inflame the Neapolitans the more. _ It 
seemed to them that in the present wretched state of 
the Austrian finances, and having regard to their 
distance from the Austrian headquarters, no more 
opportune moment for rebellion could be found. 
Fetes and other demonstrations took place in the 
chief provincial towns, and in the Parliament of 
Naples there was not a deputy who did not declare 
himself ready to throw himself into the very front of 
the combat. " I will serve," said Morici, one of them, 
" as a simple volunteer by the side of my fellow- 
citizens who have honoured me by choosing me as 
one of the national representatives. I will pray the 
general under whom I may serve to permit me to fire 
the first shot against the enemy. I swear here never 
to return to my home, to perish rather on the field of 
battle, if the country is not saved." Much of this was 
idle talk, but the Austrian authorities saw that if the 
movement was to be confined within small limits a 
rapid march must be undertaken. Accordingly when 
the opposing forces met at Rieti early in March, the 
Neapolitans were found in a state of utter unpre- 



NEAPOLITAN REVOLT 317 

paredness, and after a skirmish of about seven hours 
they began to retreat. It was then seen that the 
heart of the people was not in the movement, and 
that though they could talk and indulge in fetes and 
illuminations, they were not so ready to shed their 
blood for the clique that led them. When the retreat 
began the untrained militia in a panic broke from all 
control, and got scattered among the heights. Accord- 
ingly as the Austrians advanced they only found 
handfuls of troops opposed to them, and by the 12th 
of March the Neapolitan Parliament was glad to sue 
for an accommodation. On the 20th a convention 
was concluded, and Naples having been occupied, a 
new provisional Government was instituted. Finally, 
on the 15th of May, King Ferdinand returned to his 
capital, a general amnesty was granted, and everything 
became again settled. In Piedmont a revolution had 
also broken out contemporaneously with that at 
Naples, but the latter having been crushed, and the 
Austrians being free to direct their whole attention to 
the former, it too was soon settled. Victor Emanuel, 
however, who had been compelled to abdicate, did not 
resume his rule, and his brother Charles Felix con- 
tinued to be king. 

In 1 82 1 some riots occurred in Moravia, which, 
fortunately, were soon crushed by the help of the 
military. The finances of the country were now begin- 
ning to get more in order, though they were still far 
from satisfactory. As for the German Diet, the chief 
matter under consideration was the organisation of the 
federal army. About this time, too, Austria showed 
a strong disposition to interfere with the liberty of 



3l8 FRANCIS /., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 

the press, not in her own dominions alone, but also in 
the States of the diet, and even in Switzerland. A 
writer of the time mentions that though the territories 
of Austria contained 23,000,000 inhabitants there 
were only thirty newspapers, and that in these lands 
the censorship of the press was so severe that some of 
the finest productions of German music were pro- 
hibited and so lost to the public and to posterity, in 
order to exclude dangerous ideas about liberty and 
the House of Habsburg. In 1823 proposals were made 
to the courtsof Munich and Stuttgart to put an end to 
the publication of debates in the chambers of Bavaria 
and Wiirttemburg, and in the same year suggestions, 
which were of course intended to have the force of 
commands, were actually addressed to the Swiss 
cantons to establish a censorship of the press and 
forbid the publication of remarks on foreign politics. 
Though the Swiss naturally felt humiliated at receiving 
such dictates from a foreign Power, they nevertheless 
felt constrained to comply, and later on they even 
acceded to a joint note from Austria, Russia, Prussia, 
France, and Sardinia, requesting the expulsion of some 
two hundred foreign refugees. Next year Prince 
Metternich issued a ludicrous edict against certain 
English Radicals, who had just been expelled on 
account of their Radical principles from France, in 
particular, Lord Holland, Lady Oxford, Mrs. Hutch- 
inson, the Comtesse Bourke, and Lady Morgan. The 
reason alleged against the last was that she had 
published a book of travels containing most shameful 
calumnies against the Austrian Government and 
people. 



HUNGARIAN GRIEVANCES 319 

In 1825, after a long interval, the Emperor once 
more summoned the Hungarian Diet to meet at 
Pressburg. Parliament was opened by a Royal 
Commissioner with a speech in Hungarian, but 
a few days afterwards the Emperor went down 
in person in full state and delivered a speech in 
Latin, in which he recounted the wars and events 
since he last met them, and thanked the Hungarians 
for their help in settling them, promising them his 
favour and affection. Notwithstanding these soft 
words the diet presented a strong remonstrance with 
a list of grievances, in particular complaining that 
contributions had been exacted and recruits levied 
without their sanction or authority, and contrary to 
the statutes of the kingdom, that the diet had not 
been regularly or periodically convened, and that the 
whole edifice of their ancient privileges had been 
shaken to its foundation. This was on the 22nd of 
October. The Emperor replied calmly and tem- 
perately, stating reasons for the omissions in sum- 
moning the diet, and promising in future to call it 
together at least once in three years or oftener, and 
requested the members to proceed to business. 
Though harmony was to some extent restored, the 
diet still manifested a strong desire that matters of 
recruiting and taxation should be regulated by them- 
selves. The Archduke Palatine acted as a sort of 
mediator between the diet and his brother, and after 
another appeal to it by the Emperor to accept his 
proposals the business was concluded and the diet 
dissolved on the 18th of August, 1827, after a session 
of nearly two years. In closing the meeting the 



320 FRANCIS I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 

Emperor appointed the 1st of November, 1829, for 
the next session, and in another Latin speech declared 
that he had asked of the nation nothing that was 
inconsistent with its prosperity, so that he could not 
but feel pain at much of the proceedings of the house. 
Still he was pleased that some important proposals 
had become law, including those relative to the 
contributions and conscriptions. He then formally 
gave Imperial sanction to the Acts passed by the 
diet, and concluded with a wish for the prosperity 
of the Hungarian nation, to which he flattered him- 
self his memory would be ever dear. 

In the British dominions the slave trade had been 
already abolished in 1807. Austria, though not 
much interested in the traffic, now also took up the 
matter. In August of 1826 an Imperial decree 
was issued formally declaring that " every slave 
becomes free from the moment he touches Austrian 
soil or even the deck of an Austrian ship, and the 
slave of a foreigner recovers his liberty the instant he 
is given up to an Austrian subject." 

In 1 83 1 the Italian question was re-opened. The 
revolutionary party in France had always looked with 
longing eyes towards Italy, and from France constant 
excitement to rebellion came. In that country it had 
become an object of national ambition to expel the 
Austrians from Lombardy, and France was expected 
to prevent too stringent Austrian interference. The 
insurrection first broke out at Modena on the 3rd of 
February. A small body of about thirty men barri- 
caded themselves in a house and fired upon the 
police from the windows, but were soon compelled 



TROUBLES JN ITALY 321 

to surrender. Though the movement seemed for the 
moment to be crushed others took up the leadership, 
and the Regency took to flight. The palace was 
plundered, the Custom Houses on the frontier 
towards Parma and the Papal States were sup- 
pressed and a Provisional Government was estab- 
lished with a dictator and three consuls at the head. 
About the same time an insurrection broke out at 
Bologna, the leaders being chiefly students of the 
University, who assailed the palace and compelled 
the signature of a document which placed the troops 
of the Legation under the provisional government. 
The authority of the Pope was now declared to be 
at an end, and the populace was called upon to 
arm as a national guard. As a matter of fact, after 
the surrender of Ancona to the insurgents, the Pope 
ceased to have any authority north of the Apennines. 
In Reggio and Parma similar scenes were enacted. 
In the latter place the inhabitants requested the 
duchess to withdraw, as they intended to join the 
Italian federation, and, on her withdrawal, established 
a civic congress of ninety persons and a provisional 
government. During the whole of this time Tuscany 
and Piedmont, and in fact all Austrian Lombardy, 
remained quiet, notwithstanding the efforts of the 
insurgents to spread their movement to these pro- 
vinces. But now a fatal mistake was committed. 
The Bolognese leaders issued a proclamation to the 
" brave patriots of Lombardy," summoning them to 
throw off the Austrian rule. " Follow the example 
of France," it said, " imitate the patriots of Central 
Italy, burst asunder the degrading chains which the 

22 



322 FRANCIS /., EMPEROR OR AUSTRIA 

Holy Alliance has riveted upon you. We were 
slaves and wretched under the despotism of priests, 
but our oppressors were still Italians. You are the 
slaves of foreigners, who enrich themselves by despoil- 
ing you and render you daily more miserable." To 
Naples, too, similar exhortations were addressed. 
" To arms, Neapolitan patriots ! Shake off the yoke ; 
become free, for you have it in your power ! " Austria 
had, however, at this time some hundred thousand 
men in Lombardy, and was therefore quite able to 
cope with any revolutionary movement there. The 
only obstacle to her interference in the Papal States 
was France. So thoroughly was this realised that, when 
appeals for aid came from the Pope, from the Duchess 
of Parma, who was the Emperor's own daughter, and 
from the exiled Duke of Modena, negotiations took 
place between the French and Austrian courts, with the 
result that ultimately Austrian troops crossed the Po 
about March of 1831. There was no attempt at 
serious resistance. At Bologna alone was there any 
serious struggle, but the Papal power was soon re- 
established, and in due course the Governments of 
Parma and Modena were also restored. Only a few 
of the ringleaders of the conspiracy were tried and 
punished. It was the want of French support that 
rendered the attempt fruitless ; yet France showed in 
the following years more and more her desire to 
prevent interference on the part of Austria between 
the Italian States and their princes. Accordingly, in 
1832, when troubles were still rife in the Papal States 
and the Austrians, at the Pope's request, occupied 
Bologna, the French also sent an expedition to 



DEATH OF FRANCIS 323 

Ancona, and notwithstanding the Pope's protest 
against the violation of his territory, planted their 
flag side by side with that of the Papal States. The 
insurgents, however, openly regarded the French as 
allies, and in the French Chamber the Minister of 
Marine explained that it was "a countercheck to 
Austria, and to assert an equal right of interference." 

The next important event in Austria was the con- 
clusion in 1834 of a treaty between that country, 
Russia, and Prussia, by which, in consequence of the 
disturbances in Germany during the last years and 
the spreading of treason and anarchy, each of these 
Powers agreed to deliver up to either of the others on 
demand all persons accused of rebellion or treason, 
or of being engaged in any plot against the throne 
or Government. In the same year a congress met at 
Vienna, composed of the ministers of several of the 
German States, with a view to the reconciliation of 
the interests of the independent States with the 
federal welfare as a whole. In Frankfurt about this 
time some serious disturbances took place, but a 
strong demonstration by the federal troops under 
the Austrian general proved sufficient to quell the 
riot. 

On the 2nd of March, 1835, the Emperor Francis 
died, after a few weeks' illness, in the forty-fourth 
year of his reign. He had experienced great vicissi- 
tudes of fortune in his long reign, but though he had 
witnessed the loss of many of his Austrian dominions 
and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, he 
also lived to see his power in great part restored, 
and he left his empire nearly as powerful as he found 



324 



FRANCIS I., EMPEROR OF AUSTRIA 



it. He was the last of the elective German Em- 
perors and the first hereditary Emperor of Austria. 
For his own country his reign marks a new epoch, 
and certainly there was during his time none of 
the internal discontent and disturbance which marred 
the harmony of the neighbouring German States. 
His reign, too, marks the birth of a truly national 
Austrian spirit. As a man he was pure and upright 
and a pattern for all — not brilliant, but endowed with 
much common sense, extremely mild and simple in 
his ways, attached to his people, and in turn beloved 
by them. 




XXIII 

FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 
INTERNAL TROUBLES AND INSURRECTIONS 

The Emperor Francis I. was succeeded on the 
throne by his eldest son by his second marriage 
with Maria Theresia, of the House of Naples. The 
new Emperor was born at Vienna on the 19th of 
April, 1793, but had been rather indifferently edu- 
cated and ' Was of a weak constitution. He had, 
nevertheless, many good qualities, and though he 
exhibited a certain lack of decision he was be- 
nevolent and kind, and gave away much in charity. 
He also took a great interest in the national indus- 
tries, and these flourished under his rule. He retained 
in office his father's veteran minister, Metternich, 
whose absolutist principles accorded well with the 
somewhat despotic tendencies of the House of 
Austria. To his uncle, the Archduke Charles, he 
was specially attached, and by him he was also 
much guided in life. 

The chief events which occurred during the first 
ten years of Ferdinand's reign were connected with 



326 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

the insignificant little free republic of Cracow. This 
city and the territory adjoining had been formed by 
the Congress of Vienna into a free State, under the 
protection of the three great Powers of Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, who bound themselves to main- 
tain its independence and respect its neutrality, sub- 
ject always to this condition, that no asylum was to 
be given there to runaways, deserters, or persons 
pursued by the law belonging to any of these three 
Powers. About the time of Ferdinand's accession 
Cracow, like Switzerland, had become a convenient 
place of refuge for disaffected individuals belonging 
to the three countries mentioned, and many revolu- 
tionary propaganda had emanated from there. It 
had also become the home of many Poles who had 
been implicated in a recent insurrection against Russia, 
as well as of other political fugitives from elsewhere. 
Hitherto no attempt had been made to interfere with 
persons who had settled in Cracow, but now the 
protecting countries took it upon them to declare the 
town to be the scene of revolutionary intrigues, acts 
of violence, and secret societies by which assassi- 
nations were committed. Accordingly, some mani- 
festation of popular feeling having been made on the 
1 8th of January, 1836, the saint's day of the Emperor 
Nicholas, the residents of the three Courts addressed, 
on the 9th of February, a formal note to the Senate 
of Cracow to the effect that it was essential for the 
peace of the republic itself and the security of neigh- 
bouring States that the Polish refugees should be 
expelled within eight days, and that if such expulsion 
was not carried out within the time stated the govern- 



OCCUPATION OF CRACOW $2J 

ment of the protecting powers would take the matter 
into their own hands. 

As a matter of fact, even before the note was 
presented a body of Austrian troops had already- 
taken up its quarters in the neighbourhood of the 
city. Despite this show of force, and probably in 
the hope of getting an extension of time, the Senate 
of Cracow answered complaining of the injustice of 
the request, and stating that many of the persons 
coming within the class mentioned were innocent of 
any revolutionary intentions, and would be ruined 
in their possessions and permanent interests in the 
country. So soon as the aforesaid period of eight 
days elapsed, however, the troops of the three Powers, 
consisting of some Prussian hussars, Russian Cossacks, 
and Austrian infantry, under General Kaufmann, 
entered the protected territory, took possession of 
the city, and declared that they would stay until the 
place was cleared of all dangerous individuals. At 
the same time the militia was disarmed, the president 
compelled to resign, and a successor to the latter 
nominated by the three Courts. Forthwith the sus- 
pected persons were removed, and the inhabitants who 
concealed them were punished by fines of 500 florins 
or two months' imprisonment. In this way upwards 
of 500 Poles were marched off to Podgorze, with a view 
to being ultimately transported to America or else- 
where. Those who were allowed to remain had to 
find security for their good behaviour. By the end 
of April this expulsion of so-called revolutionists was 
completed, but Cracow continued in the occupation 
of some 2000 Austrian troops. Meanwhile the local 



328 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

militia and police were reorganised, and no foreigner 
was allowed to enter the town without a passport, 
certificates of good conduct and a permit counter- 
signed by the three Powers. The Russian and 
German languages were made obligatory, the meet- 
ing of the diet indefinitely postponed, and a strict 
censorship of the press enforced. 

In this manner did the protection of Cracow proceed 
until 1846. In February of that year an insurrection 
broke out among the peasantry in Austrian Silesia, 
and the Austrian troops, under General Collin, were 
driven out of Cracow by the insurgents. A provisional 
government was then formed and manifestoes issued 
setting forth the injustice and oppression from which 
the Poles had suffered, and calling upon all who 
were capable of bearing arms to rise and place them- 
selves under the local authorities. The insurgents 
at once followed up these decrees by crossing the 
Weichsel and marching upon Wieliczka, the Austrian 
general, Collin, still retreating before them. At Gdow, 
however, their advance at last received a check, 
and General Collin, taking immediate advantage of 
this circumstance, marched upon Podgorze, opposite 
Cracow, and there engaged the insurgents. The 
fight was an obstinate and bloody one, but ultimately 
the Austrians succeeded in taking the place and 
driving their opponents into Cracow. Meanwhile a 
Russian corps had also marched upon Cracow, and 
while the insurgents were engaged in opening up 
negotiations with General Collin the Russians actually 
entered the place without opposition. On the 5th of 
March the three insurgent leaders, Colonels Gorz- 



OUTBREAK IX HUNGARY 329 

kowski, Wodzicki, and Brinski, laid down their arms, 
handing over also some 200 horses and 600 scythes, 
but not a single gun. Cracow's independence was 
now doomed, and in November the Emperor of 
Austria issued a formal decree that as the town had 
since 1830 been the constant focus of intrigues against 
the three protecting Powers it must forfeit its indepen- 
dence and return under Austrian rule, as it had been 
prior to the Peace of Vienna of the 14th of October, 
1 809. Cracow was accordingly declared to be hence- 
forth an inseparable portion of the Austrian Empire. 
Count Maurice Deym became first Aulic Commis- 
sioner, and the inhabitants were promised the free 
exercise of their religion, impartial justice, equal 
taxes, and public security. 

The Austrian Empire was also the scene in these 
years of disturbances in other quarters. In 1837 
Hungary witnessed an outbreak of a spirit of inde- 
pendence, and district diets assembled in the autumn 
of that year at Pressburg, Pesth, and other places, 
the nobility attending in large numbers and national 
questions of importance being freely agitated. The 
chief concessions demanded by the agitators were 
the use of Hungarian as an official language instead 
of Latin, the removal of the Jesuits from the direction 
of public instruction and the discontinuance of 
the system of quartering Hungarian troops beyond 
the bounds of their country. For the time, neverthe- 
less, little was done in the way of acquiescing in these 
demands. In the following year also some trouble 
arose in the Tyrol, where the Protestant inhabitants 
of the Ziller valley, worn out with religious persecution 



330 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

applied to emigrate to Prussia. This they were 
allowed by the Austrian Government to do. These 
persons to the number of four or five hundred had in 
1825 separated from the Roman Catholic Church 
and become an independent sect, acknowledging no 
authority except the Bible, but had subsequently 
been converted to Protestantism by Prussian mis- 
sionaries. Since then the Austrian Government had 
called upon them to rejoin the Roman Catholic body 
or quit that portion of the Empire, and on their mani- 
festing a reluctance to do one thing or the other had 
refused them civil rights. Now, on receiving permis- 
sion to go to Prussia they settled near Schmiedeberg 
in Silesia. Again, in Transylvania, the diet succeeded 
this year in gaining the right to appoint their own 
public functionaries and to constitutionally control 
their own affairs, and in the same district the Monte- 
negrins between the Danube and the Adriatic also 
gave annoyance to both Austrians and Turks, prob- 
ably owing to the instigation of Russian agents. 

Two other events of importance in 1838 were the 
signing of a treaty of commerce with Great Britain on 
the 3rd of July, and the crowning of the Emperor in 
his Italians dominions on the 6th of September. As 
to the former, each of the contracting powers was 
allowed to import on mutual terms, Malta, Gibraltar, 
and other ports were freely opened to Austrian trade, 
and, by a special clause, the effect of which to some 
extent depended upon the will of Russia, the principle 
of the free navigation of the Danube was approved. 
As to the coronation of the Emperor in Italy, that 
event took place at Milan after a State entry into the 



INSURRECTION IN ITALY 33 1 

town. Among other concessions, a general amnesty 
was awarded to all persons in prison for political 
offences. 

In the next years nothing of very great importance 
occurred, except that in 1844 after an attempt on the 
26th of July on the life of the King of Prussia, at the 
time on his way to Vienna, a conference of represen- 
tatives from the different German States met at that 
capital to consider means for keeping down the revo- 
lutionary parties which were constantly disturbing all 
social relations. At this conference resolutions were 
adopted to limit the inferior chambers to their then 
existing privileges and not to extend their preroga- 
tives or to allow them to discuss decisions of the 
diet under penalty of being dissolved. This popular 
longing for free institutions was not, however, to be 
thus easily suppressed, and for a long time it caused 
much heartburning. 

In Italy the same feeling had long been smoulder- 
ing, and here, as in fact all over Continental Europe, 
revolutionary doctrines became about this time ram- 
pant. In 1847 matters almost reached the point of 
open insurrection, but Austrian power was too impos- 
ing to admit of recourse to arms. Nevertheless on the 
8th of September of that year, when a new archbishop 
named Romilli arrived in Milan, the populace poured 
into the streets with shouts of " Down with the 
Austrians ! " and had not the troops been called out, 
serious mischief might have resulted. Tobacco, how- 
ever, which was a rich source of revenue to the 
Austrian Government, was boycotted in Milan and 
Lombardy, and for a considerable space of time 



332 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

smokers of the weed ran the risk of being considered 
unpatriotic and friends of the oppressors. The 
moment for action was not yet ripe, but it was bound 
to come, and already the King of Sardinia was gain- 
ing the hearts of his subjects by fostering liberal 
measures, and rejecting Austrian interference and 
control. Next year the crisis came. The soldiers of 
the garrison at Milan had on the 3rd of January, 
1848, received a supply of cigars in order that they 
might smoke them in the streets, whereupon the 
mob bothered them, swords were drawn and a great 
number of persons severely wounded. At Pavia 
similar scenes were also enacted, the students of the 
town and the military coming into conflict. Then 
came the news of the French Revolution, and next, 
information of an insurrection at Vienna, and upon 
this the actual struggle commenced. A crowd 
assembled before the Government House in Milan 
on the 17th of March, whereupon the soldiers fired a 
blank volley to disperse them. A mere boy shouted 
" Viva r Italia ! " and discharged his pistol at the 
soldiers, and his example was at once followed by 
the mob behind him. The guard was overpowered, 
the tricolour hoisted on the Government buildings, 
and the governor himself was made a prisoner. 
A fierce struggle then took place in the streets, 
the mob gaining point after point, notwithstand- 
ing volleys of Austrian musketry, and by the 22nd 
only the gates of the town were held by the troops. 
Little balloons were also sent up containing messages 
to the peasants around to rise and come to the 
aid of Milan, which was now threatened with 



SUCCESSES OF THE ITALIANS 333 

bombardment, and when on the 23rd some peasants 
from Lecco captured the Tosa and Como gates, the 
citadel was evacuated and the Austrian troops retired 
in two columns on Verona and Mantua. 

The Austrians under Marshal Radetzky now took 
up their position at Crema, but meanwhile the King 
of Sardinia and authorities of Venice combined to help 
the insurgents. On the 8th of April Charles Albert's 
army forced the Austrians back from the Mincio 
and cut them off from the valley of the Trent. He 
was, nevertheless, unable to avail himself of this 
advantage, owing to the lukewarmness of his allies, 
and General Radetzky meanwhile got reinforcements 
of about 15,000 men. On the 6th of May a battle 
took place between the opposing forces near Verona, 
but neither side gained any definite advantage, though 
the Piedmontese afterwards fell back upon the Mincio. 
On the 30th of the month, however, Peschiera fell 
to the King of Sardinia, and on the same day after 
a severe engagement the Austrians were driven 
from Goito along the right bank of the Mincio to the 
gates of Mantua. Then Rivoli fell to the King of 
Sardinia, but on the other hand Vicenza, with 15,000 
Papal troops, capitulated to Radetzky. On the 22nd 
of July the Austrians suddenly attacked the Sardinians 
at Rivoli, and forced them back on Peschiera and 
Villafranca, but the latter continued to struggle bravely 
until the Austrians, after being reinforced by 20,000 
men, compelled them to retreat, which they did in an 
orderly manner. The Austrians now retook place 
after place, and on Sunday, the 6th of August, 
their army entered Milan almost at the moment 



334 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

when the Sardinians left it for Turin. Great Britain 
and France thereupon offered to mediate and an 
armistice was concluded, which, as we shall see, 
proved to be only a temporary cessation of hostilities. 
We must now leave Italy in order to trace out the 
events in Hungary and Austria that led to the 
Emperor's abdication. We have already referred to 
the desire on the part of the Hungarian Diet to sub- 
stitute the Hungarian language for Latin. This desire 
was by no means unanimous, and a large proportion 
of the Croats and Slavs among the population ex- 
pressed great dissatisfaction at the effort, using the 
famous words "Nolumus Magyarisari!" This want 
of unanimity seemed to justify the Austrian central 
government in withholding its consent, and Prince 
Metternich especially seems to have fallen foul of the 
Hungarian deputies over this matter. In March of 1 848 
accordingly the Hungarian Chamber at Pressburg 
passed a resolution condemnatory of Metternich's 
policy, and advising the Emperor " to surround 
his throne with constitutional institutions in accor- 
dance with the ideas of the age." In Vienna this 
intimation caused considerable excitement, but Prince 
Metternich at once proposed in the Supreme Council 
of State that the Hungarian Parliament should be 
dissolved. It was not recognised, unfortunately, that 
in Austria a similar feeling for more liberal institutions 
was rife, and on the 13th of March the Diet of Lower 
Austria also resolved upon an address to the throne 
asking for an immediate reform in the constitution of 
the Chamber and an increased representation together 
with the liberty of the press and a reorganisation of 



AGITATION IN HUNGARY 335 

finances. On this petition being rejected a mob of 
students and others broke into the Chamber and sacked 
the place, afterwards rushing towards the palace and 
coming into contact with the military. It was then 
stated that Prince Metternich had resigned and that 
the popular demands would be granted, whereupon the 
tumult ceased. On the 15th the Emperor issued a 
declaration abolishing the censorship of the press and 
convoking a diet to arrange a new constitution. As 
for Metternich, Vienna was too hot for him and he 
fled to England. 

Meanwhile in Hungary, the Bathyany- Kossuth 
ministry had started upon a policy of nothing less 
than dismemberment from the Empire, claiming 
separate administrations for war, finance, and foreign 
affairs. This the Slavs and Croats, who were stronger 
than the Hungarian part of the population, strenuously 
opposed. Nothing special occurred, nevertheless, 
until the beginning of April, when the outline of a 
new constitution was announced in deference to the 
compulsion of those around the Emperor. This con- 
stitution provided for annual parliaments, freedom of 
speech, the press and public meeting, liberty of con- 
science and religion, and the establishment of two 
houses of Parliament, the sanction of both of which 
should be necessary for all laws. In the following 
month a law appeared regulating the mode of 
elections for the first Austrian parliament, and giving 
a vote to every citizen without distinction of religion, 
except labourers and workmen, domestic servants and 
persons maintained by charity. These great and 
revolutionary changes made the Emperor afraid of 



336 FERDINAND I. {bF AUSTRIA) 

his own position and on the 17th of May he quitted 
the capital with his family and went to Innsbruck in 
the Tyrol. Petitions were signed for his return, and 
on the 8th of August he again repaired to Vienna. 
Meanwhile the Slavs and Germans in Bohemia had 
come into a state of open hostility over the constitution 
which had been granted them on the 8th of April, and 
which placed Germans and Czechs on an equal footing. 
Hitherto, the Germans though inferior in number had 
dominated over the Czechs, and whereas previously 
they were ignorant of the Czech language, they were 
now called upon to acquire the latter in addition to 
their own for purposes of State employment. This 
they were not inclined to endure. The Czechs, on 
the other hand, were equally determined not to submit 
any longer to Teuton supremacy, and as a matter of 
fact in May they established a provisional government 
at Prague independent of the government at Vienna. 
In the same month, Dalmatia, Croatia, and Slavonia 
established a diet of their own. 

The movement in Prague did not find favour in 
the eyes of the central government at Vienna, and 
Prince Windischgratz, the Imperial governor, prepared 
to put down the provisional government by force. 
Riots ensued from the 12th to the 17th of June, in 
the course of which Princess Windischgratz was killed 
by a rifle bullet. It was only after the greater part of 
the town had been destroyed that the insurrection 
was put down. In Croatia, too, the movement for the 
meeting of an independent diet was declared illegal 
and suppressed by force, Carlovitz being taken after 
a severe bombardment which reduced the place to 



kossuth 337 

ruins. Meanwhile the Transylvanian Diet had met 
and declared their province united to Hungary, 
surrendering to the latter all their independent 
rights. 

On the 8th of August, as we have seen, the Emperor 
was induced to return to Vienna. He made his 
formal entry on the 1 2th, and was received with great 
enthusiasm, bands of girls strewing his path with 
flowers as he walked from the pier on the Danube to 
his carriage. This profusion of loyalty was, however, 
of short duration. The Croats had invaded Hungary 
in force, and the Hungarian Ministry appealed to the 
Emperor to go to Pesth at once and put down the 
movement. This the Emperor did not see his way 
to do, and the members of the deputation, on going 
on board their steamer to return to Pesth, tore the 
united colours of Austria and Hungary from their 
caps and replaced them with red feathers. About the 
same time the National Assembly at Vienna decided 
by a majority not to receive a Hungarian deputation 
that had been sent to it. These acts were deemed 
so insulting that the Hungarian Diet resolved to break 
with Austria, and invested Kossuth accordingly with 
dictatorial powers. The Emperor now sent Count 
Lamberg to Pesth as Commander-in-chief of the 
forces, but on his arrival he was attacked by the 
mob and barbarously murdered. This atrocious act 
caused the central authorities to look upon the 
invading Croats as friends, and the governor of Croatia 
was appointed commissary plenipotentiary of the 
Emperor in Hungary. The disaffection spread to 
the army, and on the 6th of October a portion of the 

23 



338 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

national guards tore up the railway line, in order to 
prevent the departure of the grenadiers against the 
Hungarians. On the grenadiers being ordered to 
charge the national guard they mutinied and frater- 
nised with them. They soon gained possession of 
the town, and a party of loyal guards, who had taken 
refuge in the Cathedral of St. Stephen, were dislodged 
from that holy edifice by force, their leader being 
killed on the steps of the altar. Count Latour, the 
Minister of War, was murdered in the street, and his 
body hung up naked on a gibbet, when the national 
guards fired their weapons into it. The arsenal also 
was stormed, and the weapons it contained distri- 
buted among the populace. The following morning 
the Imperial family finally quitted Vienna. 

Meanwhile the governor of Croatia was marching 
on Vienna to assist the Imperial troops under Count 
Auersperg, but in turn the Hungarians advanced 
against them, and to the relief of the insurgents in 
Vienna. But on the approach of Prince Windisch- 
gratz, from Bohemia, the Hungarian troops with- 
drew within their own frontiers, and the capital 
thus became closely invested. On the 28th of 
October an assault was delivered, and by the 31st 
the city was at the mercy of the Emperor's troops. 
Meanwhile the Hungarians also had suffered a severe 
defeat, 3,000 of them being driven into the Danube. 
Prince Windischgratz was now able to direct all his 
attention to the subjugation of Hungary. While this 
campaign was in progress, however, the Emperor 
Ferdinand, on December 2nd, formally resigned the 
Imperial crown in favour of his nephew, Francis 



si- 




34-0 FERDINAND I. (OF AUSTRIA) 

Joseph, whose father, Francis Charles, renounced his 
right to the succession, and under this young ruler 
Austria entered on a new career, and initiated a 
constitutional policy in place of the old Metternich 
system of despotism and exclusion. Thus once 
more had the Austrian monarchy been apparently 
sunk in ruin only to emerge again in an enhanced 
state of glory, exhibiting the applicability to her 
history of Horace's words, " Merses prof undo, pulchrior 
evenit." t As for the ex-Emperor, he lived for many 
years at Prague and died there June 29, 1875. 

1 " Though you plunge it in the deep, it comes out the more 
glorious " ; — spoken of Rome. 




XXIV 



FRANCIS JOSEPH 



THE LIBERATION OF ITALY 



The first act of Ferdinand's successor was to pro- 
mulgate a new constitution, and to dissolve the diet. 
The main principle aimed at was the unity of the 
whole Empire, combined with the independence and 
free development of its parts. Political and religious 
liberty was secured, scientific instruction made free, 
and the general education of the people provided for 
by public institutions. Freedom of speech and of 
the press were confirmed, and the right of petitioning 
declared inherent in every citizen. Individual liberty 
was guaranteed, and prisoners were to be brought 
before a judge within forty-eight hours or else libe- 
rated. Two houses were to compose the Imperial 
diet, an upper and a lower, and the franchise was in- 
troduced to qualify voters, a supreme court of justice 
was instituted at Vienna, and all people in the Empire 
were to enjoy Austrian citizenship. It is interest- 
ing to give in full the various titles adopted by the 
Emperor in making this proclamation. It begins : 

341 



342 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

" We, Francis Joseph, by the Grace of God, Emperor 
of Austria, King of Hungary and Bohemia, King 
of Lombardy and Venice, of Dalmatia, Croatia and 
Slavonia, Galicia, Lodomeria and Illyria ; King of 
Jerusalem, Archduke of Austria, Grand Duke of Tus- 
cany and Cracow, Duke of Lothringen, of Salzburg, 
Styria, Carinthia, Krain, and the Bukowina ; Grand 
Prince of Transylvania, Margrave of Moravia, Duke 
of Upper and Lower Silesia, of Modena, Parma, 
Piacenza, and Guastalla, of Auschwitz and Zator, 
of Teschen, Frioul, Ragusa and Zara : Princely 
Count of Habsburg, Tyrol, Kyburg, Gorz, and Gra- 
diska ; Prince of Trent and Briden ; Margrave of 
the Upper and Lower Lausitz ; Count of Hohe- 
nembs, Feldkirch, Bregenz, Sonnenberg, &c, Lord 
of Trieste, Cattaro, and of the Windisch Mark." 

The Emperor, with all these titles, had also inherited 
the campaigns which were in progress in Hungary 
and Italy when the late occupant of the throne 
abdicated. The subjugation of Hungary was of 
course essential to the integrity of the Empire, for 
if once Hungary gained its independence Austria 
would be severed geographically from its provinces 
of Galicia, Bukowina, Transylvania, and the Banat. 
The campaign in that quarter was therefore prose- 
cuted with all the forces available. One army of 
75,000 men, under Windischgratz and the Governor of 
Croatia, marched upon the Hungarian capital ; while 
a second of 24,000, under Count Nugent, acted as a 
reserve force in Croatia ; and a third of 1 8,000, under 
Generals Schlock, Gotz, and Colloredo, operated on 
the north-east of Hungary. Other troops were also 



HUNGARY DECLARED INDEPENDENT 343 

posted in the Banat and Transylvania. As for the 
Hungarians, their forces amounted in all to about 
120,000 men in two main forces, and smaller bodies 
in the various fortresses. The first event of import- 
ance was the capture of Raab by the Imperial troops, 
from which point they proceeded to Bia, about twelve 
miles from Pesth. Kossuth, the head of the revolu- 
tionary government, now deserted the capital, carry- 
ing with him the Hungarian regalia, and Pesth was 
at once taken possession of by Prince Windisch- 
gratz. Here, however, the Austrians tarried for a 
time inactive, and the main Hungarian army was thus 
allowed to retire across the Theiss. The Hungarian 
forces towards Transylvania also held their own and 
forced the Austrians in that district back to the 
Banat. Towards the end of February, however, the 
main Austrian and Hungarian armies came into 
conflict near Gran without any definite result, ex- 
cept that the Austrians gradually retired upon Pesth 
and the Danube, where they were attacked and totally 
defeated early in March. Again, on the 9th of April, 
the Austrian force under General Gotz was defeated 
and that leader killed. Pesth was then abandoned 
to the Hungarians, and soon after Raab also. On 
April 14th the Hungarian chamber formally deposed 
the Emperor and declared Hungary to be an inde- 
pendent state. 

Austria in these extremities appealed to Russia, 
and the Czar Nicholas at once agreed to intervene. 
Soon an army of 150,000 Russians invaded the 
Austrian dominions, and compelled the Hungarians 
to give up their advance upon Vienna. On the 12th 



344 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

of July the Russian forces formed a junction with the 
Austrian troops, and thus united they took Kronstadt 
and Hermanstadt. The Magyar army now became 
completely disorganised, and at Schassburg it was on 
the 31st of July defeated with heavy loss. The final 
overthrow of the Hungarians was easily accom- 
plished. The Emperor himself, at the head of 80,000 
men, advanced and retook Raab and Pesth, and on 
the 4th of August, after defeating the Hungarians 
before Szegedin, the Austrians also entered that town. 
After another defeat on the 5th the Hungarians 
retreated to Temesvar, the capital of the Banat there, 
to make a final stand. Here the Austrians came up 
with them on the 8th, and a bloody battle ensued, in 
which the Magyars were completely and irreparably 
defeated. The remnant of their troops then sur- 
rendered to the Russians, Kossuth arid the other 
leaders escaping to Turkey. Count Bathyany was 
shot, as also some of the other chiefs, but the other 
officers and all the private soldiers were pardoned. 
As for the Turkish refugees, the Porte would not 
hand these over, and though diplomatic negotiations 
were for a time broken off, no open rupture followed. 
In Italy the chief event of 1849 was the bombard- 
ment of Venice, which had been closely besieged ever 
since it joined the revolutionary party. On the 28th 
of August of that year the Austrians at last succeeded 
in regaining possession of that city. The length of 
the siege was chiefly due to the fact that the sea was 
open, the inhabitants being thus enabled to get in 
ample supplies. Meanwhile the armistice which had 
been concluded towards the end of 1848 with Sardinia 



AGGRESSION OF PRUSSIA 345 

had terminated, and the Austrians under Radetzky pre- 
pared to force their own terms upon King Charles 
Albert. On the 20th of March the rival forces met on 
the Ticino, and four days later a decisive battle was 
fought near Novara, ending with the complete defeat 
of the Piedmontese army. Charles Albert then 
abdicated and took refuge in France, where he soon 
afterwards died. A fresh armistice was concluded 
between Marshal Radetzky and the Duke of Savoy, 
Victor Emmanuel, who had now become King, and 
soon after terms of definite peace were arranged. 

The year 1850 is notable because of the quarrel 
that took place between Prussia and Austria as 
to the hegemony of the German Diet. The fifth 
article of the old law of confederation had declared 
that Austria should have the presidency of the diet, 
and from her position of superiority she had in this 
year, on the 6th of May, summoned a meeting of 
plenipotentiaries at Frankfurt. Prussia refused to 
recognise any political superiority on the part of 
Austria, and about the same time summoned a rival 
meeting to Berlin. Thus at the same moment two 
conferences took place, one at Berlin and one at 
Frankfurt. The words of the Prussian circular to the 
foreign Powers at the time are notable : " Prussia has 
a right to reiterate what, in the course of last year 
she confessed by words and proved by actions, that 
she will remain faithful to the sacred duty which she 
owes her allies and the good cause of the national 
regeneration. If events should force her to stop, 
though but for a moment, on that path, the guilt of 
such a pause does not lie with Prussia. Neither 



34-6 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

decoying phrases nor words of threat can in such a 
case influence her resolution. Her conduct in such 
a crisis will be determined only by the welfare of 
Germany." At that time a united Germany under 
the leadership of Prussia was openly talked about by 
those at the head of Prussian affairs. On this occa- 
sion, however, no serious results followed from the 
conflict, and in the next years, as it were by common 
consent, matters political resumed their old steady- 
going course. The spirit of revolution had in the 
meantime become subdued. But an event occurred in 
1853 which tended to remind the Austrian Emperor 
of the circumstances of his accession. That was 
an attempt to assassinate him committed by a 
journeyman tailor, who succeeded in inflicting a stab 
wound on the Emperor's neck but was prevented 
from doing further harm. This miscreant was soon 
afterwards tried and hanged. Kossuth's emissaries, 
too, still traversed the country and tried to rouse dis- 
affection, but their plans did not meet with much 
encouragement. 

When the Russian-Turkish war broke out in 1853, 
and France and Great Britain were led to declare war 
against Russia, the latter Power sent a special mission 
to Vienna to gain an assurance of Austrian neutrality. 
Despite the important aid which Russia had rendered 
against the Hungarians, and the fact that the British 
nation had all along sympathised with Kossuth, the 
young Emperor refused to give any engagement 
unless the Russians would also undertake not to pass 
the Danube, and to evacuate the Danubian princi- 
palities of Wallachia and Moldavia, the occupation of 



THE DANUBE MADE FREE 347 

which, as disturbing the balance of power in Europe, 
had caused the interference of the Western Powers. 
When at last France and Great Britain jointly 
declared war against Russia, Austria also sent to 
that Power a formal summons to quit the princi- 
palities, and on the 14th of June concluded a con- 
vention with the Porte for their occupation by her. 
Accordingly, after the allied armies had compelled 
the Russians to recross the Danube and retreat upon 
Bucharest, the Austrian army marched from Kron- 
stadt and Hermanstadt under Baron Hess and occu- 
pied the provinces, ultimately making Bucharest its 
headquarters, and so separating the Russians from 
the Turks. Austria, however, nevertheless maintained 
a position of strict neutrality, and though often 
inclined to join the allied Powers she refrained from 
action. Finally, it was through her mediation that 
peace was concluded, and on the 30th of March a 
formal treaty was signed which confirmed the 
integrity of the Ottoman Empire, neutralised the 
Black Sea, and declared the Danube a free river. 
Of special importance to Austria was this last con- 
dition as well as the provisions relating to the 
removing of impediments to navigation and the 
regulating of the traffic. 

During the next five years nothing of special 
historical importance occurred, except that in 1855 
a concordat was signed at Vienna between Rome 
and Austria declaring Roman Catholicism to be the 
State religion of the Empire, and granting to the 
Pope direct control over the bishops, clergy, and 
people instead of through the sovereign. Public 



348 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

instruction was also to be conducted on Roman 
Catholic principles under superintendence of the 
bishops, and only Catholic professors and teachers 
were to be allowed in the gymnasia. Austria in 
this retrogaded most materially towards its former 
spirit of antiquated conservatism. 

The real motive of this closer union with Rome 
seems to have lain in Austria's Italian policy, which 
was of an aggrandising nature, and ultimately gave 
King Victor Emmanuel and Louis Napoleon the 
excuse for interference on behalf of Italian unity and 
liberty. The fire had long been smouldering ; in 1859 
it burst into a blaze. Ever since the battle of Novara 
the relations between Piedmont and Austria had 
been of an unfriendly nature and Victor Emmanuel's 
Government always showed undisguised favour 
towards the Italian movement in the north. Matters 
became so strained finally that the Austrian minister 
quitted Turin and diplomatic relations ceased. 
Sardinia's great hope lay of course in France, while 
the only difficulty in the way of the latter Power was 
the finding of a reasonable pretext for war. The first 
sign of the storm that was brewing appeared in the 
French minister's words to the Austrian representa- 
tive on the 1st of January, 1859, to the effect that 
relations between their respective countries were not 
so good as they had been, and fresh confirmation 
soon afterwards followed in the words of the King of 
Sardinia, who confessed to an understanding between 
France and Sardinia. The great danger was lest 
all Germany should take up the Austrian cause, 
but Germany was racked with disunion, and 



BATTLE OF MAGENTA 349 

Prussian policy had long been to weaken Austria 
so that she herself might take the lead in German 
affairs. Efforts were made by Great Britain and 
other Powers to avert the war, but in April Austria 
precipitated matters by issuing an order to Sardinia 
to disarm in three days, which Count Cavour 
at once declined to do. There was, under the 
circumstances, no other course open to Austria 
except to proceed, and she straightway invaded 
Piedmont, this step inducing France to take up arms 
for the liberation of Italy " from the Alps to the 
Adriatic." The first battle took place on the 20th of 
May at Genestrello, where Garibaldi and his force of 
volunteers, in conjunction with the French, drove the 
Austrians from their positions, following this advan- 
tage up by completely routing them at Montebello, 
where they had taken up a fresh position. At Vin- 
zaglio, Casalino, and Palestro the Austrians met with 
a like fate, and at Magenta, on the 4th of June, 5,000 
Austrians were taken prisoners, and 15,000 killed or 
wounded. Four days later the Emperor of the 
French and King Victor Emmanuel entered Milan. 
On the Mincio the Austrians made another stand. 
The Emperor himself was present, but here at 
Solferino, on the 25th of June, the Austrians were 
again driven from all their positions. At this stage, 
for some reason or other, the French Emperor sent 
General Fleury to the Austrian lines with proposals 
for an armistice. These were duly accepted, to the 
great disgust of the Italians, who were thus left in the 
lurch with their task only half accomplished, and 
without even having been consulted. A treaty of 



350 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

peace followed at Villafranca on the nth of July, by 
which an Italian confederation under the Holy Father 
was created, Lombardy, except Mantua and Peschiera, 
ceded to the French to be handed over to the King 
of Sardinia, and Venice allowed to be part of the 
Italian Confederation, though still under the Austrian 
crown. These terms, so fruitful of future discord, 
were duly confirmed afterwards on the nth of 
November at Zurich. 

The next events in these quarters belong rather to 
the history of Italy, and we can only here state the 
general result. Garibaldi was the hero, and he it was 
who realised Mazzini's great idea as a fact. First he 
dethroned the Bourbon dynasty of Naples almost 
without striking a blow. Next the Sardinian troops 
invaded the Papal States and took Ancona after a 
short campaign. By the end of i860 the conquest of 
Southern Italy was complete, and in the following 
year Victor Emmanuel was duly proclaimed King of 
Italy. 

As for Austria at this period, she was busy reorgan- 
ising her whole political constitution. On the 5th of 
March, i860, the Emperor established by Imperial 
patent an enlarged Reichsrath of 80 members, consist- 
ing of — (1) archdukes, members of the Imperial house; 

(2) some of the higher ecclesiastical dignitaries ; 

(3) persons distinguished in the civil and military 
services ; (4) 38 members of the representations of 
the different provinces. This body was to consider 
besides other matters — (1) the amount of the budget, 
the State balance-sheets, and the National Debt ; (2) 
the proposals for new general laws ; and (3) the pro- 



POLITICAL REFORMS 35 I 

posals of the provincial constitutions. It was not, 
however, to be capable of initiating any original 
measures, and the provincial diets were still to 
exercise their old privileges. The Hungarians, 
nevertheless, were not satisfied with this, and on the 
27th of February of next year a further decree was 
issued restoring their former constitutions to the 
kingdoms of Hungary, Croatia, and Slavonia, and to 
the Grand Principality of Transylvania. Then a new 
Reichsrath was formed of two houses, the House of 
Peers (Herren/iaus), consisting of one hundred mem- 
bers, and constituted like the reichsrath of the year 
before, and a house of 343 deputies, representing 
Hungary, 85 ; Bohemia, 54 ; the Lombardian- 
Venetian Kingdom, 20 ; Dalmatia, 5 ; Croatia and 
Slavonia, 9 ; Galicia and Lodomeria, 38 ; Lower 
Austria, 18 ; Upper Austria, 10 ; Salzburg, 3 ; Styria, 
13 ; Carinthia, 5 ; Carniola, 6 ; the Bukowina, 5 ; 
Transylvania, 26 ; Moravia, 22 ; Upper and Lower 
Silesia, 6 ; Tyrol and Vorarlberg, 12 ; and Istria, 
Gortz, and Cradisca, 6. These houses were to meet 
annually for the discussion of matters within their 
respective spheres. A Privy Council or Staatsrath 
was also established whose function should consist in 
advising the Emperor and Council of Ministers. 

On the 1st of May, 1861, the new Reichsrath met 
at Vienna, and was formally opened by the Emperor 
in person, surrounded by the Imperial family and 
chief officers of State. No representatives, however, 
appeared from Hungary and the Slavonic districts, 
the leaders there maintaining that the policy of the 
Austrian Government was contradictory to the terms 



352 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

of the Pragmatic Sanction, according to which the 
King of Hungary should govern according to the 
existing laws of the country. Nothing short of con- 
stitutional independence and self-government would 
satisfy them. As Count Andrassy said : " Centrali- 
sation and absolutism must necessarily go hand in 
hand. The former policy requires the maintenance 
of a large army, and must inevitably lead to bank- 
ruptcy. The position of Austria as a great Power is 
better secured by the principle of duality than by the 
principle of unity. The system of centralisation has 
raised the National Debt of Austria to more than 
300,000,000 florins and has so weakened her that a 
semi-official French pamphleteer can make her 
quake." 

As Hungary proved obstinate the Emperor took it 
upon him to dissolve its diet. Still, however, the Hun- 
garians resisted — passively, by non-payment of taxes. 
In consequence of this a military dictatorship was con- 
stituted, soldiers were billeted upon the inhabitants, 
and a system of oppression was resorted to which at 
last made their resolution give way. The taxes were 
then sullenly paid, but though no outbreak occurred, 
the feeling in the country was such that the slightest 
spark would have caused the flame of insurrection to 
break out. Thus matters continued until 1865. In 
that year the Emperor summoned the Transylvanian 
Diet to meet at Vilausenburg to revise the law of 
1848, relative to the union of Hungary and Tran- 
sylvania. In a manifesto he declared that a great 
part of the Empire, loyal and patriotic though it was, 
had refused to participate in the work of general 



CONCESSIONS TO HUNGARY 



353 



legislation, but that he was now determined to let 
nothing stand in the way of the development of a 
Liberal Constitutional form of government. He also 
stated that he would again ask the Hungarian and 
Croatian diets to accept the constitution of i860. 
Accordingly, when the Hungarian Diet was opened 
at Pesth on the 14th of December, the Emperor deli- 
vered a speech in which he professed to approve of 
Hungarian self-government, so far as it did not affect 
the unity of the Empire, and the position of Austria 
as a great European Power, and hoped that confidence 
would be restored between the King and the nation. 
At the same time summonses were issued to Tran- 
sylvania and Croatia to send members to the Hun- 
garian Diet, the autonomous independence and 
integrity of the Hungarian crown being thus in a 
manner recognised. 




XXV 

FRANCIS JOSEPH {continued) 

WAR WITH PRUSSIA 

We must now go back a year or two to trace the 
events which led to the short but disastrous war of 
1866. Prussian policy, as we have already stated, 
had long been adverse to Austria in the matter of the 
leadership of the German Diet, and, though affecting 
a friendly spirit of co-operation, Prussia frequently 
gave signs of a tendency to break away on a course 
of her own. The crisis came with the Schleswig- 
Holstein question, which had been all through the 
present Austrian Emperor's reign a burning one. In 
1863 the German Diet met at Frankfurt, among the 
members being the Danish envoy as representing 
Holstein and Lauenburg, but no definite settlement 
of the German demand for the separate government 
of Schleswig-Holstein was arranged. On the death of 
the King of Denmark shortly afterwards, however, 
the Duke of Augustenburg laid claim to the suc- 
cession to the duchies and the troops of the Bund 
occupied Holstein and Lauenburg. Though to all 



SCHLESWIG-HO r ~~EIN QUESTION 355 

appearance Austria and Prussia were at one in these 
proceedings, signs were not wanting even then of a 
want of harmony between the two countries. For 
instance, when, in that same year 1863, the Emperor 
of Austria issued a circular to the different German 
sovereigns and princes asking them to meet in con- 
gress to deliberate upon a scheme for the reformation 
of the Bund, the King of Prussia declined to attend, 
and yet the latter acknowledged that in principle he 
was in favour of such an assembly of princes, his only 
objection being that it ought to be preceded by a 
conference of Ministers. The absence of the King of 
Prussia was of course a heavy drawback, and another 
effort was made to induce him to attend. Again, 
nevertheless, he refused, and Prince Bismarck's words 
at the time clearly showed that the point of difficulty 
was the leadership of Austria. " Prussia would, if she 
acceded to the demand, renounce the position which 
her power and her history have made for her among 
the whole of the European nations, and would risk 
making the forces of the country serve for purposes 
alien to the interests of the country, and for the 
determination of which we could not exercise the 
degree of influence and control to which we can with 
justice pretend." 

In 1864, however, the Schleswig-Holstein matter 
became so pressing that Austria and Prussia took it 
into their own hands, despite an adverse vote of the 
diet. They saw that both would lose the supremacy 
among the German States unless energetic action was 
taken. On the last day of January a strong allied 
force accordingly crossed the Eider, and after various 



356 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

skirmishes captured the famous Dannewerke, and 
then proceeded to the siege of Diippel, opposite 
Alsen. Diippel was in due course carried by assault, 
and the whole of Schleswig fell into the hands of the 
allies. But in May a naval action occurred off 
Helgoland between two Danish frigates and a 
corvette and an Austrian squadron of two frigates 
and three gunboats, in the course of which the 
Austrian flagship took fire, and the Danes were left 
masters of the situation. An armistice was then 
concluded, followed by negotiations for peace. 
Meanwhile, however, the acts of the federal diet, 
especially of the representatives of the minor States, 
had become very displeasing to Prussia, and even 
among the troops the feeling of bitterness became 
such that the Saxons were compelled by the 
Prussians to leave the duchies. Austria and Prussia 
managed matters henceforth between themselves. 

On peace being concluded Austria and Prussia 
assumed a joint control of the duchies, but on the 
14th of August, 1865, a convention was signed between 
the two countries at Gastein by Herr von Bismarck 
and Count Blome, which began by stating that " their 
Majesties the King of Prussia and the Emperor of 
Austria having become convinced that the co- 
dominion hitherto existing in the countries ceded 
by Denmark leads to inconveniences which endangers 
at the same time the good understanding between 
their Governments, and also the interests of the 
duchies " ; and proceeded to divide the latter geo- 
graphically, Schleswig being controlled by Prussia and 
Holstein by Austria. Of course it was evident that 



PRUSSIAN ALLIANCE WITH ITALY 357 

this state of matters could not last, and the smaller 
States now realised to their disgust that the sole 
result of their interference with Denmark would 
be the aggrandisement of Prussia. Austria, too, per- 
ceived that she had been hoodwinked by her northern 
neighbour, and the inevitable consequence was a feel- 
ing of irritation between the two Governments, each 
of which was ambitious to possess the lead in 
Germany, and found herself hampered and checked 
by the other. The coming struggle, moreover, seemed 
likely to be an extensive one, for France showed 
open dislike to the growth of Prussian power, and 
Italy also did not conceal her intentions of making 
another effort to extend her dominions. But Bis- 
marck met Napoleon at Biarritz, and arranged 
matters so completely to his satisfaction that on his 
return through Paris the Prussian Minister told the 
Italian Minister, Chevalier Nigra, that war between 
Prussia and Austria was now inevitable. In other 
words, he had secured the neutrality of France. At 
the same time he playfully told the Italian minister 
that "if Italy did not exist, it would be necessary 
to invent her," namely, to distract Austria in the 
south. 

On the 8th of April a treaty of alliance, offensive 
and defensive, between Italy and Prussia was signed 
at Berlin, but even before that date both these Powers 
had their troops mobilised and ready for war. About 
the same time the Prussian Foreign Office addressed 
a note to Vienna complaining about the Austrian 
military preparations, which did not seem consistent 
with peace. But Austria was in a position to retaliate 



358 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

with a similar complaint. Then France, Great Britain, 
and Russia made final endeavours to prevent war, and 
suggested the convocation of a congress, but, on 
Austria interposing the condition that no combination 
should be discussed which would result in an exten- 
sion of territory for any one of the States invited, the 
project fell through, for the cession of Venice to Italy 
was one of the points upon which the mediating 
powers reckoned. Soon afterwards, on June 12th, 
diplomatic relations were broken off between the 
countries. Then, on the 15th, Bismarck requested 
Hanover, Saxony, and Hesse Cassel to disarm, and 
on their refusing to obey war at once began. 

The Prussian forces were divided into three separate 
armies. Of these the first, commanded by Prince 
Frederick Charles, nephew of the Prussian king, and 
composed of about 1 20,000 men, was stationed on the 
frontiers of Saxony ; the second, under the Crown 
Prince, and comprising 125,000 men, was stationed at 
Neisse in Silesia ; and the third, under General Her- 
warth von Bittenfeld, and comprising 50,000 men, 
operated from Halle on the Elbe. Other smaller forces 
were also set apart to invade Hanover and Hesse Cassel. 
As to these last, though the campaign opened with a 
Prussian defeat by the Hanoverians near Langen- 
salza, the arrival of the main body of the Prussian 
forces soon changed the situation and compelled a 
capitulation. The King of Hanover took refuge in 
Austria and the Elector of Hesse Cassel was made a 
prisoner of war. 

Prince Frederick Charles, on the other hand, crossed 
the Saxon frontier on June 16th and advanced upon 



BATTLE OF KONIGGRATZ 359 

Dresden, being joined by the way by Herwarth and 
his force. In four days the whole of Saxony was in 
the hands of the Prussians, the Saxon army retreating 
into Bohemia and there joining the main body of 
the Austrians under General Benedek. Now the 
three main Prussian armies were able to act in con- 
cert against the Austrians, and by the end of June 
communications were established between the army 
from Saxony and that of the Crown Prince at 
Gitschin. Now the King of Prussia, with Count 
Bismarck and General von Moltke, appeared on the 
scene, and preparations were made for the final 
blow. Moltke's idea was, if possible, to bring the two 
divisions of his forces together on the battlefield, like 
the manoeuvre which won the French the battle 
of Bautzen. Some reconnoitring was made which 
showed that there was no serious obstacle to the 
march of the Crown Prince, and without delay orders 
were sent to him to advance, while the army of Prince 
Frederick Charles proceeded to attack the Austrian 
lines on the Bistritz. Everything went as the Prussian 
strategist had planned, and though at one stage 
matters seemed to be going so badly with the army 
of Prince Frede/ick Charles that the King exclaimed, 
" Moltke, Moltke, we are losing the battle," that hero 
was perfectly confident of the result, and calmly 
answered, " Your Majesty will win to-day, not only 
the battle, but the campaign." It was even so. As 
early as eleven o'clock in the morning a battery in 
the direction of Horenhowes was seen to be in action, 
and the whisper then went round that the Crown 
Prince was at hand The approach of the latter 



360 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

decided the battle, and General von Benedek had to 
retreat across the Elbe leaving 18,000 men on the 
field and 24,000 more prisoners in the hands of the 
enemy. Such 'in short was the decisive battle of 
Koniggratz. 1 

The Prussians were now free to march upon Vienna, 
and that capital being threatened the Emperor of 
Austria was compelled to hastily come to terms with 
Italy by ceding Venice to the Emperor of the French 
for transference to the King of Italy so as to have the 
army of the south free to act against the invaders. 
Italy was glad to fall in with the proposal, for she 
had sustained some serious reverses, particularly at 
Custozza on 24th June, when the Archduke Albrecht 
completely defeated her forces though numerically 
superior. At sea also off Lissa the Austrian fleet 
under Admiral Tegethoff had proved victorious. 

Meanwhile the Bavarian troops co-operating with 
Austria had suffered severely at the hands of the 
Prussian forces under Generals von Falkenstein and 
von Manteuffel, and by July 16th the latter were in 
Frankfurt. Heavy war contributions were then levied, 
and the whole district treated with the utmost rigours 
of conquest, the Prussians were only too glad to avail 
themselves of the opportunity of paying off old 
scores against the Philo- Austrian Frankfurters, whose 
town was the seat of the hated Diet. 



1 The most reliable personal account of this battle from the Prussian 
side is naturally that of Von Moltke. It will be found in English in 
vol. ii. of " Moltke's Letters to his Wife and other Relations," translated 
by J. R. Mcllraith, with introduction by Sidney Whitman (Kegan Paul, 
Trench, Trubner, and Co., Ltd., 1896). 



ATTITUDE OF FkANCE 36 1 

Freed from the necessity of operating further 
against Italy, the Archduke Albrecht now took com- 
mand of the Austrian army of the north and pre- 
pared to defend Vienna. A junction with Benedek 
was duly effected, but the troops were still much dis- 
organised, and the Prussian advance was so rapid that 
on July 20th Herwarth's outposts were within fifteen 
miles of the Austrian capital. The position was a 
very critical one, for another defeat would probably 
have caused the total overthrow of the Government 
and the dismemberment of the Austrian Empire. On 
the other hand, for Prussia, there was the danger 
present of French interference. Had Prussia gone on 
she might possibly have had two wars to wage at 
once. This, under the circumstances, she was un- 
willing to do, and on July 22nd an armistice was 
agreed to at Nikolsburg preparatory to negotiations 
for peace. Thus was Austria saved and complete 
German unity under Prussia postponed partly through 
the attitude of a Power which was shortly afterwards 
to suffer for her energetic interference. 

On the 26th of July peace was duly concluded upon 
terms that Austria should cease to be a member of 
the Germanic confederation, that she should pay a 
war indemnity of 40,000,000 thalers to Prussia, and 
that she should leave Prussia to act as she pleased 
with regard to Northern Germany. The result was 
the annexation to Prussia of Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
Nassau, and part of Hesse Darmstadt, the acquisition 
of the reversion to Brunswick and the grant of the 
supreme military and diplomatic leadership of a new 
North German confederation which was now formed 



362 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

and which included Saxony as one of its members. 
Austrian Silesia was made the pledge for the pay- 
ment of the war indemnity. On the 23rd of August 
the final treaty of peace was signed at Prague. With 
regard to Venice it was agreed that " the Lombardian- 
Venetian kingdom should be united to the kingdom 
of Italy without any other condition except the 
liquidation of those debts which have been acknow- 
ledged charges on the territories now resigned in con- 
formity with the treaty of Zurich." As for France, 
whose neutrality the German agents had secured by 
holding out prospects of additions of territority on the 
Rhine, she gained nothing, and woke up to find that 
she had been checkmated by the astute statesman 
of the North, who guided Prussia's destiny. And 
next year, when the King of Holland expressed him- 
self as willing to cede Luxemburg to her for a money 
consideration, she was prevented availing herself of the 
offer through the violent outburst of German feeling 
that ensued upon the disclosure of the negotiations. 




XXVI 

FRANCIS JOSEPH (continued) 



RECENT EVENTS 

AFTER the peace of Prague, Austria had to look with 
all seriousness to her own material regeneration. Her 
armies had been shattered, her prestige was gone, and 
she was burdened with debt. Further, Hungary still 
held aloof from the rest of the Empire, and refused to 
be represented in the Imperial councils though sullenly 
obeying the administrative and executive dispositions 
of the central power. In a message sent to the diets 
of the Empire on the 18th of February, 1867, by the 
Austrian Government, these words were used: " During 
a long course of years the constitutional organisation 
of the monarchy has suffered from hitherto in- 
separable contradictions between the older rights of 
the Hungarian constitution and the liberal institu- 
tions which the Emperor has made it the aim of his 
life to establish throughout the monarchy. During 
the continuance of this conflict the restoration of the 
greatness of the Empire and of the historical posi- 
tion it has so long occupied among the other States 



364 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

of Europe is not to be hoped for, and, owing to the 
relations which have arisen out of the recent calamities, 
every new delay that occurs in the settlement of 
pending questions is fraught with the most decided 
disadvantages." The message then proceeded to 
suggest the immediate restoration of its constitution 
to Hungary. In June the necessary diploma granting 
the constitution was signed, the Emperor and Empress 
being at the same time crowned at Budapest as 
King and Queen of Hungary amid great public 
rejoicings. A coronation gift from the Hungarian 
nation was also presented in two silver caskets, each 
containing 50,000 ducats, but these their Majesties 
generously made over as a fund for the support of 
the widows and orphans of the Honveds, or Home 
Defenders, many of whom had fought against Austria 
in 1848-49. Henceforth Hungarian self-government 
became a reality, and the designation of the Empire 
became that of the Austrian-Hungarian monarchy, or 
the Austrian-Hungarian State. Other useful measures 
cutting down the influence of the Roman Catholic 
Church in the matter of public education and ex- 
tending the public rights of citizens also became law 
about this time. 

In February of 1868 an important memorandum 
was issued defining Austria's future foreign policy. 
" Austria, having by great sacrifices extricated herself 
from the events of 1866, is firmly resolved to follow 
both at home and abroad the policy of peace and 
conciliation as the only salutary one for the present 
as well as the future. His Majesty the Emperor 
King as well as the people of the Empire are con- 



WAR BETWEEN PRUSSIA AND FRANCE 365 

scious that the war which Austria was forced to fight 
against two powerful enemies was neither unjust nor 
inglorious. But this thought is free from all idea of 
retaliation, and since the peace of Prague, Austria, 
with respect both to Prussia and Italy, has the same 
pacific and friendly sentiments which she manifests 
with respect to the other Powers." This intimation 
was important at the time, for it was felt that war 
between France and Prussia was inevitable sooner or 
later and Austria's neutrality was therefore a matter 
of moment. France could not complain that she 
had not been warned to expect no assistance in that 
quarter. At the same time in view of the imminent 
danger Austria kept her army at this time on a war 
footing of 800,000 men " as much to cause her own 
neutrality to be respected as to keep back other 
Powers who might be inclined to attack." She did 
her utmost, moreover, to dissuade Napoleon from the 
extreme course, but the latter 's reply to her ambas- 
sador was : " Je ne crams rien plus qu'une reculade de 
la Prusse. Voyez cet enthousiasme de toute la France 
pour la guerre ; je ne le retrouverai jamais? When 
war actually broke out in 1870 the Austrian Govern- 
ment did what it could to limit its scope, and when 
after all was over and Count Bismarck proceeded to 
sail through the treaty of Prague and further increase 
the power of the North German confederation then 
created, Austria had, through her inability to interfere, 
to look complacently on the scene. 

Meanwhile, in January of 1870, the ministry of 
Count Taafe had resigned on the question whether 
the separate nationalities of the Cisleithan Empire 



366 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

were to be previously consulted before a new law 
introducing direct elections should be brought before 
the Reichsrath or whether that law should first be 
introduced and opposition to it afterwards be silenced. 
Dr. Giskra then assumed the leadership of affairs, but 
the opposition spirit of the different nationalities 
had become roused. Czechs, Galicians, Poles, Slo- 
venes, and Tyrolese all combined to avert anything 
like a policy of centralisation, and within a few 
weeks Dr. Giskra too had to resign. These events 
were followed almost immediately afterwards by a 
large secession of Poles, Slovenes, Bukowinians, 
and Istrians from the united Cisleithan Parliament, 
whereupon the majority there requested the Emperor 
to dissolve the provincial diets of which the seces- 
sionists were members. On the Emperor's refusing 
to do this the Ministry then sitting resigned, and 
Count Potocki was requested to take the leadership. 
This he did in conjunction with Count Taafe, and 
these ministers then set about trying to organise a 
parliament which should properly represent all por- 
tions of the Empire and prevent political catastrophes 
in the future. It was accordingly proposed that a 
Reichsrath should be re-established independent of 
the local parliaments and chosen by direct elections. 
The Reichsrath then sitting was therefore dissolved, 
as also all the provincial diets of Western Austria, 
except that of Bohemia. Bohemia absolutely 
refused to send representatives to the new Reichs- 
rath. Neverthless, on September 17th the latter 
duly met, and in his speech the Emperor contented 
himself merely with expressing regret at the absence 



AGITATION IN BOHEMIA $6? 

of the Bohemian representatives, and proposed for the 
consideration of the Reichsrath various matters in- 
cluding measures for the settlement of the relations 
between the Catholic Church and the State, which 
had become necessary in consequence of the con- 
cordat with the Papal See hitherto existent having 
been abrogated. 

With regard to Bohemia, at this time the Czech 
element had a decided majority in number over the 
German element, and now increased its influence 
more and more. Even in Prague the Czech lan- 
guage was largely prevalent. These facts had so 
emboldened the Czech leaders that they now aimed 
at nothing less than the restoration of an indepen- 
dent Bohemian kingdom to comprise Bohemia, 
Moravia, and Austrian Silesia, after which they would 
aim at annexing Prussian Silesia, Lusatia, and the 
Slovak districts of Hungary. In other parts of the 
Austrian-Hungarian Empire the diverse populations 
were also troublesome. Thus in the south of the 
Tyrol the Italian element was preponderating so 
much that even insurrection was feared, and in the 
German provinces the Germanic element at times 
seemed inclined to cast in their lot with the strong 
German Empire of the north. 

In January of 1871 Count Potocki resigned after 
an adverse demonstration in the Reichsrath and on 
the persistent refractoriness of the Czechs of Bohe- 
mia. Count Hohenwart was then entrusted with the 
task of forming a new cabinet. He was an ultramon- 
tane and a reactionist in politics, and represented 
that section of the German population of Austria 



368 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

which had thrown in its lot with the Slavonic sepa- 
ratists. This minister at once declared himself in 
favour of a policy of decentralisation without, how- 
ever, violating the constitution. This roused the 
sternest opposition on the part of the German cen- 
tralists and so much was the Government hampered 
that it practically accomplished nothing. It duly 
introduced, nevertheless, on the 25th of April, its 
scheme of reform which provided that the provincial 
diets should be entitled to pass laws relating to 
matters not already determined by special laws 
passed by the Reichsrath, which laws so passed 
should, if approved by the Reichsrath and the Em- 
peror, have a legal sanction in the province by whose 
diet they were passed. As for the Reichsrath, its 
duty should be simply to examine these proposed 
measures and adopt or reject them. On this scheme 
being rejected Count Hohenwart did not resign but 
calmly proceeded to introduce a Home Rule measure 
for Galicia as a preliminary to similar measures for 
other divisions of the Empire. Upon this the Oppo- 
sition addressed the Emperor to dismiss the Ministry, 
but the reply given was to the effect that the 
Chamber should co-operate with them in producing 
harmony among the peoples of the Empire. Despite 
a threatened deadlock, the budget was duly passed, 
after which the Ministry appealed to the country on 
their Home Rule schemes. 

It was now seen, however, that the Bohemian 
demands, if satisfied, would mean nothing less than 
dismemberment and would infallibly lead to further 
difficulties in other provinces of the Empire, particu- 



CHANGE OF MINISTRY 369 

larly Hungary and Tyrol, and on the German and 
Hungarian parties under Counts Beust and Andrassy 
taking up a strong position the Emperor was com- 
pelled to resign his support of Count Hohemvart. 
A provisional ministry was then appointed with 
Baron Holzgethan at its head to carry on necessary 
business, and after a time Baron Kellersperg, for- 
merly Governor of Bohemia, assumed the duty of 
forming a new Ministry. Now, however, Count 
Beust resigned his post of Chancellor of the Empire, 
being succeeded by Count Andrassy, the Hungarian 
Prime Minister, not as Chancellor but as Minister 
of Foreign Affairs. Baron Kellersperg and Count 
Andrassy could not agree as to the best course to 
take in the constitutional questions of the day, the 
latter being particularly displeased at the other's 
refusal to concede anything to Galicia. The result 
was that before the end of the year (1871) Keller- 
sperg also retired. The post of Prime Minister was 
then occupied by Prince Adolph Auersperg. 

With regard to the period of which we are speak- 
ing, it is interesting to notice that since 1871 a 
separate series of postage stamps has existed for 
Hungary, though a postal card had already in 1869 
been issued for that kingdom. Its territories, too, 
already enlarged by the addition of Croatia and 
Transylvania, were in 1872 further increased by the 
Military Frontier, which was in that year converted 
into a distinct province. 

A new session of the Reichsrath opened in Decem- 
ber of 1 87 1. First was proposed a Bill for the 
introduction of compulsory elections, that is to say, 



370 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

in those districts and towns of which the representa- 
tives already chosen should abstain from taking their 
seats in the Reichsrath. This duly became law. 
Then the budget was passed, and that the more 
readily as the returns for the year showed a surplus 
instead of the customary deficit. About the same 
time the Government dissolved the hostile Bohemian 
diet, and on the results of the new election being 
declared it was seen that the constitutional party had 
a good working majority. New elections for the 
Hungarian Diet also took place, and on its assembling 
in September the Emperor journeyed down to open 
it in person. Altogether his conduct at this time 
tended much to produce a beneficial effect on the 
excited political elements at work. 

It was not, however, until the end of 1872 that the 
promised scheme of electoral reform was introduced. 
When this took place its provisions were seen to 
include the election for the future of members of the 
Lower House by all persons entitled to the suffrage, 
the increase in the number of such members to 120, 
each electoral district electing one deputy, and the 
granting of a vote for a member of the diet to every- 
one entitled to a vote for a member of the Reichsrath. 
On the 6th of March, 1873, this Bill was duly passed, 
the deputies from Trent being the only dissentients. 
Henceforth not the provincial diets, but the general 
body of the electors in the provinces elected the 
members of the legislative body. 

While these important reforms were in progress 
two notable events happened in the Emperor's 
household. These were (1) the death of the Dowager 



PARLIAMENTARY MEASURES 37 1 

Empress which occurred in February, 1873 ; and (2) 
the marriage of the Emperor's daughter, the Arch- 
duchess Gisela, with Prince Leopold of Bavaria on 
the 20th of April, 1873. Also in this year a great 
" Universal Exhibition " was held at Vienna, opened 
by the Emperor on the 1st of May, and held under 
the patronage of the Archduke Charles Louis. But 
a financial panic which occurred about the time 
tended greatly to mar its success, and public credit 
continued much disturbed for the remainder of the 
year. Before the close of this period, however, a 
joyful event was the sinking of the memories of the 
disaster of Koniggratz and the loss of Venice and 
Lombardy by the renewal of intimate relations 
between the sovereigns of Germany, Austria, and 
Italy. 

The first measures of importance passed by the 
recently reformed Austrian legislative body dealt 
with the relations of Church and State. The spiritual 
authority exercised by the priests was limited, they 
themselves were to be liable to be dismissed by the 
Government, and religious endowments were made 
subject to State control. Further, the institution of 
convents and monasteries was made one of the 
Government prerogatives, and clerical endowments 
were taxed in order to provide a sum for the relief of 
the inferior clergy. Naturally the Pope and the clergy 
were strong against these Bills, but the Ministry was 
completely successful and they were passed by 224 
votes against 71. 

An interesting event in 1873 was a visit paid by 
the Emperor Francis Joseph to the old ex-Emperor 



372 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

Ferdinand, who was living in quiet retirement at 
the Imperial palace at Prague called the Hradschin. 
Next year, on June 29th, the latter died. He was 
buried with stately ceremony at Vienna, but without 
any great manifestation of popular sympathy. 

With the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish war in 
1877, Austria resumed much of her old importance in 
the European concert. Like Great Britain she observed 
a strict neutrality. At the same time there was a 
large portion of the population, especially among 
the Hungarians, who were strongly hostile to the 
Russians, and all the time the conflict lasted there 
was the danger of these gaining the upper hand and 
forcing the nation into war. In August the Austrian 
troops were actually mobilised, the excuse being the 
threatening position of Servia and Roumania. As 
the Times correspondent at the time stated : " Austria 
is determined to prevent the Danubian Principalities 
acquiring a title to aggrandisement, and however 
reluctant to run present risk, prefers interference 
where inaction is believed to involve the gravest 
peril in the future." There was, too, every reason 
to believe that the Russians might enter Servian 
territory in order to operate upon the Turkish flank 
from that quarter. Nothing, however, occurred to 
precipitate matters, and Austria preserved her 
" expectant policy." Count Andrassy deliberately 
stated that he considered neutrality with a full 
reservation to interfere at the final settlement to be 
the best course, and that he meant to keep to it. 
The principle was that Austria would join the other 
Powers in safeguarding European interests, while at 



CONGRESS OF BERLIN 373 

the same time being careful to reserve the right to 
protect herself. Accordingly, when the peace of San 
Stefano was concluded, dissatisfaction was openly 
expressed at it, and not only that, but Austrian troops 
were massed on the frontier ready to take the initiative 
should the Congress of Berlin be unable to come to 
a proper understanding. As events turned out, peace 
was preserved and Austria assumed an occupation 
of Bosnia and the Herzegovina in conformity with 
Lord Salisbury's proposal at the congress. The 
racial feeling in these provinces had not, however, 
been consulted, and the occupation was only effected 
with some difficulty. Popular risings occurred in 
various parts, and in some cases considerable loss of 
life occurred. At last on the 19th of August, Serajevo 
was occupied after a severe engagement, and on the 
7th of the following month the Austrians also entered 
Trebinje. Soon afterwards all resistance collapsed 
and Count Andrassy set about establishing a proper 
system of civil government. The provinces were 
virtually annexed to the Austrian- Hungarian Empire, 
though not without considerable heartburning therein 
owing to the threatened increase of Slavonic 
influence, and the Ministry managed to hold their 
own and get the necessary budgets passed. 

In 1879 general elections took place and, chiefly 
owing to the want of harmony as to the Government's 
Eastern policy, they proved disastrous to the German 
Constitutional party. As soon as the results were 
known, accordingly, Prince Auersperg's ministry 
resigned, and Count Taafe formed a new coalition 
Cabinet representative chiefly of the aristocratic 



374 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

liberal, clerical, Slavonic, and Czech elements. At 
the same time Count Andrassy resigned his post of 
Foreign Minister, this office being then assumed by 
Baron Haymerle, the Austrian Ambassador at Rome. 
Meanwhile the Austrians had given umbrage to 
Russia by the occupation of Novi-Bazar, but Prince 
Bismarck visited Vienna and an arrangement was 
come to, the knowledge of which effectually stifled 
the Russian desire for interference. 

Count Taafe's Ministry was of too heterogeneous 
a nature to last, the Czech element especially being 
a source of difficulty, and in 1880 a change took 
place, Count Taafe remaining Prime Minister, but 
the Ministers of Justice, National Defence, Commerce 
and Finance, being respectively superseded. This 
change, however, pleased neither the Hungarians nor 
the Austrian-Germans, and the former even initiated 
a movement for complete separation. As for the 
German party it dissociated itself from the Ministry 
more and more, and on the 15th of January, 1881, 
a further change took place in the Ministry, the two 
German Ministers, of Justice and of Commerce, 
resigning and being succeeded by Czechs. The 
effect of this was to produce still greater antagonism 
between Germans and Slavs, and the irritation among 
the diverse elements in the Empire was intense. 
The Emperor, on his side, did his best to allay the 
storm, and paid several visits to Bohemia, Galicia, 
and the Tyrol, with a view to conciliating the 
populace and at the same time showing his sympathy 
with the Ministry. 

In 1882 a revolt broke out in Herzegovina and 



ME X ACE ON PART OF RUSSIA 2>7S 

Dalmatia, but after a short campaign it was com- 
pletely quelled by the capture of Fort Dragali, the 
insurgent headquarters. Next year Croatia, too, was 
the scene of disorder, but the ringleaders of the 
movement confined themselves to the organising of 
demonstrations against the Hungarians. In 1884, 
however, the Croatian Radicals became so menacing 
that Agram, the capital, was actually placed uflder 
martial law, and the noisy members of the diet were 
expelled from it by force. 

In 1885 a new Reichsrath was elected, but Count 
Taafe maintained his position, the new assembly 
including 192 ministerialists, 132 opponents of the 
ministry, and 29 " savages " or independents. For 
a time the conflict between nationalities was abated, 
but the truce was of very short duration. In par- 
ticular, the Government regulations whereby the 
Czech language was allowed in the Bohemian courts 
of justice gave great dissatisfaction to the German 
element in the province, and an agitation was started 
to modify the new rules. 

For the next few years the chief disturbing element 
was Russia, which persisted in massing troops upon 
the Galician frontier as if with the view of attacking 
the Austrian-Hungarian Empire on the first available 
opportunity. The unfriendly attitude of France to 
Germany also seemed to threaten complications. As 
in both cases the motive was pretty much the same, 
the best plan to avert the threatening danger seemed 
for Germany, Austria, and Italy to combine. "With 
Austria on our side we have no other want," were the 
words used by Prussia's great strategist, Moltke, long 



376 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

before even the Austrian-Prussian war of 1866, and 
this view now commended itself to Germany's states- 
men. Accordingly, the Triple Alliance was entered 
into in 1888, the chief terms of which were, that if 
France should attack either Germany or Italy, the 
two latter Powers should combine to resist her, and 
that if Russia were to attack either Germany or 
Austria, both these should make war upon Russia, 
while if France and Russia combined to attack one 
of the three allied Powers, these should all join 
together in resisting them. To this strong combina- 
tion is due, in a great measure, the preservation of 
the peace of Europe since, especially as Great Britain, 
though not a party to the league, was known to have 
entered into friendly relations with Italy with regard 
to the Mediterranean. So far as internal affairs were 
concerned, the threatening nature of the political out- 
look caused the Austrians to make special efforts to 
place their army on the best possible footing. Nearly 
100,000 men were added to its fighting strength, 
the whole was furnished with the new Manlicher 
repeating rifles, and the cavalry, artillery, and trans- 
port departments were all completely reorganised. 
It was also provided by special army bills passed in 
1888 that a yearly average of 125,600 recruits should 
be levied during the next ten years for the regular 
army and the two landwehrs instead of 119,345 as 
previously, the object being to enable the military 
authorities to bring up the total fighting force to 
800,000 men. 

In August of 1889 the Emperor of Austria paid a 
visit to Berlin, and there mutual assurances were 



378 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

exchanged between the two Emperors, that if need 
should arise their armies would fight side by side. 
Later on in the same year the German Emperor paid 
a visit to the Emperor Francis Joseph at Innsbruck, 
and these repeated signs of harmonious cordiality 
have tended greatly to the preservation of peace. In 
the following year meetings again took place both 
between the Emperors and between their respective 
Chancellors, and much satisfaction was also felt over 
Europe at the Italian Premier, Crispi's, words uttered 
at Florence on October 9, 1890, that " If Austria 
did not exist she would have to be created." Russia 
now began to desist from her warlike attitude, and in 
1892 the situation had become so much improved 
that Count Kalnoky was able to say in that year : 
" Our relations with all Powers are satisfactory. The 
constellation of Europe is growing more and more 
peaceful. There is now no especial cause for mis- 
givings, since the Powers meet each other with the 
assurance that they wish decidedly for peace and have 
no thoughts of aggression." 

The air was further cleared when in 1894 an 
Austrian-Russian commercial treaty was concluded, 
which event seemed to complete the rapprochement 
with Russia. Difficulties with the latter country were 
also rendered more remote by the declared policy of 
the Austrian Government not to interfere with the 
domestic policy of the Balkan States, and of these, in 
particular, Bulgaria and Servia. 

Two notable internal movements in Austria ought 
also to be mentioned — namely, the growth of an- 
archism and the anti-Semitic agitation. Important 



GROWTH OF ANARCHISM 379 

with reference to the first of these was the secret 
society of the Omladina, which in 1894 included 
among its members not only university students and 
young men of the middle classes, but professors and 
leaders of thought, and had at its command fourteen 
newspapers in Bohemia alone. On February 21st of 
the last-mentioned year occurred a great trial of certain 
members of this body who were implicated in some 
dynamite outrages, and severe sentences were inflicted, 
and about the same time were tried and convicted at 
Vienna fourteen members of the Independent Socialist 
body. On the very day of the trial of the Omladinists 
no less than twenty-one workmen's meetings were 
held in the capital, nine in Briinn, and many others 
besides as demonstrations in favour of social demo- 
cratic doctrines, and on March 25th an important 
Socialist congress met. One of the chief demands of 
the agitators was for an extension of the franchise. 
Of the anti-Semitic agitation the two leaders were 
Prince Alois Liechtenstein and Dr. Lueger. The 
latter was in 1895 elected Burgomaster of Vienna, but 
Count Badeni, the then Premier, would not confirm 
the election, and when a second election had the same 
result the Government straightway dissolved the 
municipal council and appointed an Imperial com- 
missioner. 

Connected with these two movements was the 
change of Ministry in 1895. In consequence of the 
persistent agitation the previous Ministry of Prince 
Windischgratz resigned, their place being taken for 
a time by a provisional cabinet under Count Kiel- 
mansegg, who, by the way, was the first Austrian 



380 FRANCIS JOSEPH 

Premier of the Protestant faith. This provisional 
Cabinet sat from June 19th to October 4th, when its 
place was taken by a new Cabinet in which Polish 
influence predominated, Count Badeni being Prime 
Minister with the control of home affairs and Count 
Goluchowski being Minister of Foreign Affairs. This 
Ministry proved a fairly strong one, and in an early 
speech Count Badeni used these words : " Our aim 
is a powerful, patriotically thinking united Austria. 
... It is the duty of the Government to take 
care to maintain social order and to prevent its dis- 
ruption or annihilation ; but the Ministry is ready to 
consider justified political aspirations, always keeping 
in view the interests of existing society." 

In fulfilment of these ideas a Parliamentary Reform 
Bill was laid before the Reichsrath on February 19, 
1 896, and passed without alteration after a fortnight's 
debate. Prior to this date the Lower House had 
been returned by four estates — namely, the great land- 
owners, the cities, the Chambers of Commerce, and 
the rural communes. Now a fifth estate was created 
consisting of all males over 24 years of age not in 
domestic service, an estate which is about five times 
as numerous as the older sections. A General 
Election then followed and the anti-Semites were 
found at the close thereof in larger numbers than 
before. Dr. Lueger was again, for the fourth time, 
elected Chief Burgomaster, but on the Emperor's 
representations he soon retired, not, however, before 
making some violent speeches in which he declared 
he would make Austria independent of the Jews. As 
for Count Badeni's Ministry it only held together for 



ASSASSINATION OF THE EMPRESS 38 1 

a comparatively short period ; and on March 7, 
1898, a new Ministry was constituted with Count 
Thun-Hohenstein as President and Minister of the 
Interior, and since then Parliamentary proceedings in 
Austria have been much more peaceful in their char- 
acter, though for how long remains to be seen. 

The last event to which we have to refer is of a 
very painful nature. On the 10th of September, 
1898, the Empress Elizabeth of Austria was, during 
a visit to Geneva in Switzerland, cruelly assassinated 
by an Italian anarchist, Lucchini or Luccheni. There 
was apparently no definite motive for the act except 
thirst for royal blood. The Empress was sixty-one 
years of age. Her people called her " Goldelse," or 
the fairy with the golden hair, and by them she was 
much beloved. She was active by nature, and in her 
younger days rode horses like an amazon and walked 
until her court ladies could walk no more. Manifold, 
too, are the good and noble works set down to her 
credit. Alas, that such a one should meet with 
such a fate ! that the hand of the assassin should 
add another misfortune to those already endured by 
the reigning Emperor J Only a few years before, the 
heir to the throne, the Archduke Rudolph, whose 
intellectual qualities were of a specially brilliant cha- 
racter, had taken his own life while in an abnormal 
state of mind, induced, if continental rumour is to 
be believed, by the artifice of enemies of the Royal 
House. 



XXVII 



AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 



OUR " Story of Austria " would be incomplete 
without some account of the intellectual life of her 
people. To describe this in detail and with satis- 
factory completeness would demand much more space 
than is permissible in the present volume. The 
following short sketch, however, will be sufficient to 
direct the reader to further inquiry. And first as to 
Austrian literary efforts. 

The history of Austrian literature falls to be divided 
into two great epochs — that of the Middle Ages, and 
that of recent times since the middle of the seven- 
teenth century. In the intervening period Austria 
might well be termed the " German Bceotia," not that 
genius was altogether lacking, but that it was not 
exemplified in either prose literature or poetry. The 
two periods mentioned are strongly distinguished for 
this reason, that while in the Middie Ages Austria was 
the source of a rich national literature which influenced 
all Germany, in the latter period it was Germany 
which gave the impulse to Austrian endeavours. 

As is only natural, much of the literature of Austria 

382 



LYRIC POETRY 383 

is shared in common with Germany, and this holds 
good even of the earliest times. Thus among the 
earliest literary works of Austria are the Niebelun- 
genlied and the Kudrunlied, both of which are held 
in equal esteem in Germany. The former was re- 
produced in Upper Austria in the twelfth century, it 
is said by Kiirnberger, while the latter became fixed 
in a literary shape in Styria towards the end of the 
twelfth or beginning of the thirteenth century. At 
that time the monasteries, too, were the home of a 
special form of religious poetry, including such pieces 
as the " Marienleben " of the Carthusian Philip of 
Seitz, and the " Auferstehung Christi " of Gundacker, 
of Judenburg. Lyric poetry also flourished under the 
guidance of Kiirnberger and Dietmar, of Aist, both of 
Upper Austria. But the great period of bloom was 
under the Babenbergs. This dynasty was highly 
cultured and of artistic tastes, and did its utmost to 
foster the intellectual life of its people. Even Henry 
of Modling, Leopold the Illustrious, and Frederick 
the Valiant themselves indulged in verse composition, 
and in their time Vienna became a real centre to 
which masters in verse flocked in numbers. Resident 
in the capital were Reimar the Elder (the nightingale 
of Hagenau), Reimar von Zweter, Conrad Marner, 
Stein mar, &c, and Tyrolese Walther von der Vogel- 
weide x wrote some of his finest sons^s there. Of the 



1 Born between 1165 and 11 70. He wrote both religious and lyrical 
pieces, and dealt also with the political questions of his time, in parti- 
cular, the mutual relationship of monarch and people, and the relation- 
ship of both these to the Papacy. (See Wilmann's " Leben und Dichten 
Walther von der Vogelweide." Bonn, 1882). 



384 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

famous Lower Austrians of that period perhaps the 
best known are Geltar, Dietmar der Sezzer (from 
Baden), and Kol von Neunzen (from Zwetl) ; and of 
the Upper Austrians, Hartwig von Rauten, Herrand 
von Wildonie (from Styria), Konrad von Sonneck, 
Rudolf von Stadecke, and Ulrich von Liechtenstein. 
Carinthia and Salzburg-, too, sent many writers to 
Vienna ; thus from Salzburg came the famous Tan- 
hauser, and from Carinthia, Heinrich von Lienz and 
Zachaeus von Himmelbern. Of those just mentioned 
many wrote not only lyric but epic poetry. Lastly, 
in the department of historical literature we have 
famous chroniclers ; indeed, Vienna and Styria pro- 
duced the two most distinguished chroniclers of the 
thirteenth century — namely, Hans Enenkel, who 
wrote the Chronicles of the world, and " das Ftirsten- 
buch," of Styria, and Steier, who narrates the history 
of the Austrian provinces down to the death of 
Frederick the Valiant. If these writers lacked 
imagination and warmth of sentiment, they at all 
events manifested a critical observation of men and 
things and showed that they possessed sound judg- 
ment. 

In the fourteenth century a humbler style of poetical 
composition prevailed. Then it was that wandering 
minstrels strolled through the country reciting their 
lays which, if not well finished, generally spoke from 
the heart. Among the best known in Austria are 
Michel Beheim, from Niirnberg, who lived at the 
court of Frederick IV., and Hans Sachs, also from 
Niirnberg, who sang in Vienna. Dramatic poetry 
also began at this time to be cultivated, chiefly in 



GERMANIC LITERARY INFLUENCE 385 

the form of Easter and Christmas plays. But the 
cultivation of poetry by the minstrel class did not 
degenerate the taste for composition, and even royalty 
and nobility indulged in such work. The Emperor 
Maximilian I. himself was the author of a piece called 
" Theuerdank," which was read all over Germany. 

The period of the Middle Ages was brought to a 
close by the Reformation. The great religious con- 
troversy which followed diverted men's energies and 
there was little literature of note produced. What 
did see the light was of a more or less religious and 
controversial nature, and it is not till the middle of 
the eighteenth century that we again meet with 
anything like a real national literature. Then, how- 
ever, a new epoch of Austrian-German literature was 
entered upon. Science had in Maria Theresia's time 
already attained great results, and literature did not 
tarry far behind. So when Joseph II. ascended the 
throne quite a high point had been reached and 
literary circles included such names as Alxinger, 
Michael Denis (a Jesuit born at Scharding in Upper 
Austria), Carl Mastalier (born at Vienna), von 
Kalchberg (born in Upper Styria), Ratschky, Retzer, 
Blumauer and Haschka. At the end of last century, 
too, we have the great name of Franz GrafFer who 
depicted Austrian life as he observed it. Meanwhile 
the works of the great Northern and Central German 
writers, such as Blisching, Wieland, Klopstock, 
Mendelssohn, Buffon, &c, were also reproduced in 
Vienna and widely read. 

For a considerable part of this period Austrian 
poetical composition was concentrated in a little 

26 



386 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

book, called the " Wienerischer Musen Almanach," 
which first appeared in the year 1777 and was 
published annually, containing for the time being 
nearly all the attempts at poetry made at Vienna. 
Josef Franz Ratschky (1757-18 10) himself wrote for 
this almanack and indeed called it to light. His 
writings consisted of lyric poetry, epic verse, mono- 
graphs and translations. Other early writers in the 
almanack were Schlosser and Gottlieb or Amadeus 
Leon, the latter of whom was only twenty years of 
age when his first poems were published. The names 
of Lodl and C. Mayr also appear in the almanacks 
of the early period. In subsequent years occur the 
names of Alxinger, Michael Denis, Leopold Friedrich 
Giinther-Geekingk, Haschka, Prandsteller, Retzer, 
and Karoline von Greiner. In 1782 we actually find 
included an English poem by James Kemper called 
" The Fate of Chloe " in six verses, of which the first 
runs thus : — 

" Unhappy Damon long had tried, 
To soften Chloe's stubborn mind. 
In vain he begged, in vain he sighed, 
In nuptial ties their hearts to bind. 
The cruel maid triumphing in his pains 
Was pleased to lead her slave in iron chains." 

But Kemper's name does not appear again. A more 
important name in the next years was that of Josef 
von Sonnenfels, who was already fifty years of age 
when he began to contribute to the Almanack of the 
Muses. This writer published many epigrams, in- 
cluding among others imitations of Prior, Butler, &c. 
The following two examples of his style will suffice. 



And 



LATER AUSTRIAN POETRY. 387 

After Prior. 

(Draw your wit as seldom as your sword, 
And never on the weak, for you'll appear, 
There as no hero, nor a genius here.) 

" Zieh deinen Witz so selten als dein Schwert ; 
Und auf den Schwiichern nie ; 
Denn jenes macht dich nicht als Held bewiihrt, 
Und diesz nicht als Genie." 



From the " Hudibras." 

(Brevity is very good 

When we are or are not understood.) 

Kiirze schliigt ste f s trefflich an, 

Damit man euch versteh'n — auch nicht verstehen kann 

Sir Butler's grosze, weise Lehre, 

Autoren, o vergeszt sie nie ! 

Sein Hudibras lebt noch, und eure Schwere 

In Folio were kennet die ? " 



Later on we find new names, such as those of 
Mastailer, Gabrielle von Baumberg, von Josch, 
Scheiger, Anton Grolzhammer, and Sophie von La 
Roche. 

Another famous work in the early part of the 
modern period was the " Taschenbuch fur Deutsch- 
land's Sonne und Tochter," which appeared in 1797 
at Vienna, and even more important was the " Neue 
Wiener Musen Almanach," which was first published 
in 1798. In this last work the authors of the poems 
are not mentioned by name, but among them were 
Gaheis, Jiinger, von Kalchberg, Christopher Kuffner, 
Johann Philip Neumann, Schilling, Schwaldopler, 
and Wideman. In 1802 appeared another " Musen 
Almanach," but it was not of much importance. 



388 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

Passing away from these so-called Zeitschriften, 
however, we find the theatre in Austria in a very- 
degenerate state at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century. Later on, Schiller's works were introduced 
into Austria soon after their original publication, 
and there even in the provincial towns. Goethe 
and Shakespeare, too, have at all times been 
favourites, and Macbeth used to be performed at 
Graz, while "Werther" was danced as a ballet at Linz. 
Especially influential in furthering the drama were 
Iffland and Kotzebue, the former of whom played at 
Graz and the latter of whom managed the Court 
Theatre at Vienna. Other famous names of the 
time are Hermann von Ayrenhoff and Heinrich 
Collin. There was also a writer of dramas in 
Laibach named Anton Linhard. Collin is also well 
known for his anti-French and Landwehr songs 
(Landwehr Lieder^. When Napoleon I. occupied 
Prussia, many writers migrated from the north to 
Vienna ; and thus in 1 808 were in residence there the 
two brothers Schlegel ; followed soon afterwards by 
young Theodore Korner, who worked at the Court 
Theatre ; Zacharias Werner, who took refuge in a 
Viennese monastery ; and Heinrich v. Kleist, a great 
hater of the French, who also found a place of refuge 
in the Austrian capital. Wilhelm von Humboldt 
also tarried there for a time as Prussian Ambassador. 
The result of this influx was the infusing of fresh 
spirit into Austria, and the change was marked by 
the appearance of Grillparzer in 1 8 1 7 with his " Ahn 
frau." The classical romantic school now prevailed, 
the best known names being Grillparzer (lyric poet). 



SCIENCE IN AUSTRIA 389 

Halm, Feuchtersleben, and Lenau. More purely 
romantic is Anastasius Griin, the author of " Spazier- 
cfang-e eines Wiener Poeten " and " Schutt." Also 
worthy of mention are Maurus Lindemayr (born in 
1723, at Neukirchen, in Upper Austria), who wrote 
a peculiar dialect, and in the same connection 
Franz Stelzhammer, Karl Kaltenbrunner, Ferdinand 
Raimund, Friedrich Kaiser, and more recently 
Anzengruber and Peter Rosegger. Rosegger is 
specially pre-eminent in his descriptions of life and 
scenery among the Styrian Alps. 

Good prose writers have always existed in Austria, 
but space will not admit of a detailed statement 
of them or their works. At the same time, in 
what follows, reference will be found to some of 
them. 

Science found a home in Austria in the very 
earliest times. A country so rich in minerals was 
bound to attract investigators into their mysteries, 
and even in Roman times the mines and saltworks 
of Xoricum were famous. It was left to the Germans, 
however, to infuse real life into these industries. At 
the same time the monks in their cells entered into 
deeper investigations into the nature and qualities of 
the minerals of the country. Salzburg was in this 
respect the great centre, and in that district Arch- 
bishop Arno instilled a love of science into his 
subordinate clerics. That famous man it was who 
founded the library at Salzburg. The Scottish priest 
Virgilius, to whom we have referred in an earlier 
chapter, also laboured there. When the Hungarians 
began their incursions, however, scientific progress 



390 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

was in most parts stayed, but in Salzburg it never 
entirely died out. About the twelfth century the 
schools again became flourishing, and in the following 
century we find each great monastery again in posses- 
sion of its own school. Classical studies were 
especially cultivated and Aristotle's philosophy 
became widely prevalent under the teaching of Otto, 
Bishop of Freising (n 11-58). The benefit, never- 
theless, was all on the side of the upper classes in 
these early times. But in the thirteenth century the 
citizen classes also became partakers and " Biirger- 
schulen " were instituted, the first being the Viennese 
" Burgerschule b'ei St. Stefan." Besides classics and 
philosophy, theology and history were also taught, 
and natural science, mathematics, and astronomy 
were not neglected. 

A decided step in advance was taken when the 
university at Vienna was founded in 1365 by Rudolf 
den Stifter, and foreign professors brought to the 
Austrian capital the best results of the learning of 
other countries. The string of names connected 
with this university is a long and famous one, among 
them being that of John of Gmunden (died 1442), 
styled the father of mathematical and astronomical 
science in Germany, who gave a special impulse to 
the study of astronomy. After the Reformation had 
become an accomplished fact, two parties prevailed 
as leaders in learning — the Jesuits and the Protestants. 
The former long retained their ascendency, and it was 
not till the middle of the eighteenth century that the 
reformed party came decidedly to the front. The 
consequence was that the antiquated notions and 



PHYSICS AND HISTORY 39 1 

doctrines held sway for all that period, and the 
history of science in Austria is marked by a state 
of quiescence. Of course, the classics were still 
studied in the gymnasia, as well as dialectics, 
metaphysics, moral philosophy, mathematics and 
physics, but there was little in the nature of original 
research or discovery. When the eighteenth century 
was reached, however, we find a fresh impulse given 
to all departments of science among Jesuits and 
Benedictines and Protestants alike, and with the 
formation of the true science of chemistry a real 
era of bloom commenced. Maria Theresia's reign 
marks the turning point, and from that time forward, 
with the University of Vienna as a centre, science 
has progressed steadily and is constantly making 
fresh advances. In the departments of astronomy 
and mathematics may be mentioned such names as 
Baron Adam von Burg (born at Vienna 1797), who 
was specially distinguished for higher mathematics ; 
and Tobias Burg (born at Vienna, 1766), who was 
notable for his astronomical studies. So in physics 
well known are Christopher Rieger, Gottlieb Biwald 
(botanist), Franz Guessman, Josef von Herbert, 
Stelzhammer, Christian Doppler (optician, died 1854), 
Karl Kreil (1798- 1862), and still later Josef Stefan, 
Ludwig Boltzmann, and Julius Harm. A large 
number of scientific and learned societies also have 
been instituted in this later period ; for example, the 
" Historischer Verein ftir Innere Oesterreich," founded 
in 1842, and the " Vereine ftir nieder oesterreichische 
Landerkunde," founded in 1864. Historical studies 
have been prosecuted with special zest, and many 



392 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

famous names might be mentioned since Maria 
Theresia's time. Geography and statistics, too, have 
made great progress, and the Austrian philologists, 
especially the Orientalists and Germanists, have earned 
great renown. A special Oriental academy was in- 
stituted at Vienna as early as the time of Maria 
Theresia, and Baron Bernhard von Jenisch's (born 
1734) Oriental lexicon is well known. The depart- 
ment of law long had languished, the old Roman and 
ecclesiastical laws prevailing, but this became in- 
vigorated after Franz Schrotter had founded the 
Austrian State law. More recently Anton Hye and 
others have further reformed the juristic system, 
especially in the domain of criminal law. In 
medicine again well-known anatomists are Josef 
Leber and Alexander Mayer, and the works of the 
great Austrian ophthalmologist, George Beer, are 
found in both English and French. Botany, 
chemistry, and mineralogy all have had their 
votaries, and in zoology we have the great name 
of Ludwig Redtenbacker (born 18 14). A portrait of 
the famous physician of Maria Theresia, Gerard von 
Swieten, a Dutchman by birth, who settled in Vienna 
in 1745, is here reproduced. 

As to agriculture, the Austrian provinces have 
always been most fertile, and from the earliest times 
they have been under cultivation. The immigration 
of the Germanic people, however, here too led to a 
great development. So perfect was their system that 
by the thirteenth century agriculture had practically 
reached its highest point, and since then until quite 
recent times it remained in pretty much the same 




FREIHEKR GERARD VON SWIETEN. 

[From " The Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy" by the Archduke 
Rudolph and others.) 



394 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

state. Vine culture, on the other hand, has somewhat 
gone clown, and whereas in the Middle Ages in 
Carinthia, Styria, and the two Austrias, the produc- 
tion of wines was very large, this industry has in 
more recent times been greatly supplanted by other 
openings. With regard to the agricultural classes, 
their condition has of course varied much at different 
times. It could not be otherwise in a country overrun 
so often as Austria has been by hostile bands. In 
the beginning of the fourteenth century many 
labourers were carried off prisoners by Bohemians, 
Magyars, and Turks, and when the " Black Death " 
ravaged the country it produced great havoc among 
the country people. Then again the Thirty Years' 
War was severely felt. Since the beginning of the 
seventeenth century, however, things have been much 
more settled, and from that time forward we see 
signs of betterment. Potatoes were introduced to 
Vienna as early as 1682, that is, earlier than in 
Germany, and by the beginning of the eighteenth 
century were to be found in every garden and farm. 
Under Maria Theresia, and Joseph II. especially 
there was very great improvement. These monarchs 
made the interests of the agricultural labourers their 
particular care, and the work begun by them was 
continued by their successors. In 1806 the Archduke 
Ferdinand even made over a large tract of unculti- 
vated land in Salzburg to a number of colonists. 

The mines of Austria were, as we have already 
mentioned, well known even in the time of the 
Romans, the iron and gold of Noricum being sought 
after in every part of the Roman Empire in the 



MINES AXD MINERALS 395 

early years of the Christian era. The chief localities 
were Salzburg, Upper Styria, and Carinthia. There 
again the Germanic inhabitants obtained the best 
results. Already in the second half of the fourteenth 
century there were in the hills of Gastein as many 
as fifty different works. So rich too did some of the 
families engaged in these industries become that they 
could vie in splendour with the archbishops. All 
classes combined to further these trades. In. 1500, 
the Archbishop of Salzburg even held a conclave of 
all the labourers in his district with a view to the 
discovery of any defects in the then existing system 
of mining. To the salt works of Austria we have 
also already referred. These were known as far back 
as the time of the Celts and Romans, and were taken 
over by the Germans on their settling in the country. 
Lastly the weaving industry has long been an ex- 
tensive one. The systems adopted have not been 
very different from those in other countries. In 
older times hand looms were used, to be replaced 
by machines in the present century. As early as 
1802 English machines were in use at Pottendorf 
and Schwadorf. 

Art, like science, also found its early home in the 
monasteries, and it was from these sources that it 
spread among the people. These monasteries being 
German, it follows that the early advances in art 
are likewise due to the German element in Austria. 
In the days of the Carlovingian dynasty, however, 
the art that prevailed was of a very rude order. At 
the same time its objects were uniformly confined 
to the service of the Church, and it was beneath the 



396 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

protection and patronage of the Church that both 
painting and architecture flourished. Nevertheless 
a considerable period elapsed before any very solid 
work was done. The earliest churches in Austria 
were built of wood, without towers, small and 
unadorned. It was Bishop Altmann of Passau 
(107 1 -91) who first began the building of stone 
churches ornamented with paintings. After the 
thirteenth century, when the Gothic style was intro- 
duced, a further degree of improvement was marked. 
Then was built the cathedral at Wiener Neustadt, 
the Church at Lilienfeld, and the Cathedral at Gurk. 
The Roman porches of most of the churches of that 
time show the strong influence exercised by the 
Italian school. And not only fine churches were 
erected, but the hills and mountains throughout the 
land were crowned with gorgeous castles, homes for 
the nobility, the remains of which still testify to the 
artistic sense then prevailing. When the Magyars 
overran the district, however, most of the old rude 
buildings of the Carlovingian time got destroyed, and 
from the eleventh century downwards, new castles, 
churches, and ordinary buildings were erected. Ex- 
amples of those early specimens of architecture may 
be found in the little square of the castle of Ranna 
in Lower Austria, the ruins of Starhemberg, the 
mansion at Hainburg, and, above all, Liechtenstein. 
After the end of the thirteenth century, the style of 
architecture employed is pure Gothic. Take, for 
example, the nunnery at Imbach, founded in 1269, 
and the choir of the church at Pettau. In the four- 
teenth century a large number of new churches were 




SCHUBERT. 

(Sec page 402.) 



398 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

built. In the reign of Frederick III. especially, fine 
Gothic churches arose on every side. In Styria at 
that time, no less than forty-nine such were built. 
Magnificent monasteries and convents also sprang 
up about the same period. 

Painting also in the early times was almost wholly 
confined to the monasteries. Towards the end of 
the eleventh century, Archbishop Thiemo, of Salzburg, 
was specially distinguished for his artistic skill. 
Sculpture, too, was practised by the clergy, and even 
by the laity, receiving a decided impetus with the 
introduction of the Gothic style. Both painting and 
sculpture were in these days much influenced by the 
schools of Germany and Italy. As examples of the 
work of the Middle Ages, may be cited the frescoes 
of the fourteenth century in the cathedral at Gurk, 
representing scenes from the Old and New Testa- 
ments, the pictures of events in the life of Christ in 
the church at Gerlamos, and the apostles and other 
pictures in the church of St. Michael at Berg, painted 
by Johannes Hauptheller (1428). The altar paintings 
of the early period are specially notable, and miniature 
painting was also practised, chiefly in the monasteries. 
Of painting on glass we find numerous early speci- 
mens, but few of the thirteenth-century painters are 
known by name. There is hardly a cathedral or 
monastery of that period without paintings on glass, 
and as we approach the sixteenth century we find 
that art becoming better and better. Specially in- 
teresting are the paintings in the choir of Heiligen- 
kreuz, and at Klosterneuburg, in the royal chapel at 
Wiener Neustadt, the cathedral at Gurk, the convent 
church at Zwetl, and the church at Hall. 



ARCHITECTURE 399 

In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries many- 
churches were built, but so numerous were they that 
they were all erected in pretty much the same style, 
and little care or originality was exercised in their 
design. The Renaissance had' great difficulties to 
overcome, and a hard struggle to fight in Austria. 
To this middle period belongs the palace of the 
Princes Porzia, at Spital in Carinthia. About the 
same time a great alteration began to be manifested 
in the mansions of the nobility — who left their 
mountain residences, and built summer seats on the 
plains with huge parks, and all that luxury and 
comfort could suggest. As examples may be cited 
Schonbrunn, the splendid Rosenburg, Schalaburg, 
Riegersburg, Eggenberg, Hellbrunn, and Mirabell. 
The great monasteries of Melk, Herzogenburg, Gott- 
weih, Klosterneuburg, and Admont also belong to 
the same period. Throughout, the influence of the 
Italian schools is conspicuous. The dwellings of the 
middle and lower classes at that time do not appear 
to have been in any way remarkable. 

As was the case with architecture, so was it with 
painting and sculpture, and during the Renaissance 
both these imitated the Italian schools. Most of the 
sculpture that survives consists of monuments hewn 
out of rough marble, and these are known to have 
been executed by both German and Italian masters. 
In the eighteenth century the art of painting received 
a decisive impulse through its being patronised by 
the Imperial house, the nobles, and the clerics, and 
in the nineteenth century especially it has attained 
a high state of bloom. Of recent artists we need 



400 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

only mention the names of Wurzinger, Kupelwieser, 
Karl Rahl, Moritz von Schwind, Eduard Steinle, and 
Hans Makart. As to landscape and animal painting, 
these branches have only been developed first in the 
present century. Still they have made great progress, 
and good examples are in existence, in the works of 
Johann Christian Brand, Franz Steinfeld, Thomas 
Ender, Josef Feid, Ignaz Raffalt, Johann Fischbach, 
Marcus Pernhard, Josef Hoger, Ferdinand Wald- 
miiller, Johann Rauch, and Friedrich Gauermann. 

One word in conclusion upon music, of which at 
all times Austria has been the home. Austria is the 
place for feasts and celebrations, and no feast or 
celebration can be held without music or dancing. 
The " stampenie," the " radewanzen," and other 
Austrian dances are world famous. As to music, 
that, too, like the rest of Austrian culture, originated 
in the monasteries and among the clergy. Originally 
it seems to have been limited to organ music and 
chanting, but later on other instruments such as 
trumpets, violins, and flutes were introduced. Already 
in 1234 there was an organ in St. Stephen's Church; 
and in the fourteenth century the best organ builders 
of the world were resident at Vienna. By the end 
of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth 
century a high degree of perfection had been attained, 
especially during the reign of Maximilian I. At the 
University of Vienna music was taught both in 
theory and practice, but the Italian taste was allowed 
chiefly to prevail. Since the seventeenth century 
operatic music has been much favoured, but in a 
more truly national form, Italian influences giving 




2; 



402 AUSTRIAN LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND ART 

way. In 1771 was founded by Gassmann the 
Viennese musical society, which numbered among 
its members princes and other high nobles, and this 
was soon followed by the institution of the German 
opera. Chief among the musicians who brought 
about this revolution was Johann Georg Albrechts- 
berger, the organist and composer, and the Austrian 
music of "Father" Haydn, to whom is due the 
creation of sonatas, went far into Germany and Great 
Britain. Haydn was born at Rohrau, in Lower 
Austria. Mozart, according to many the greatest 
musical genius the world has ever seen and the 
founder of the Romantic Opera, was a native of 
Salzburg, and won his first triumphs when a boy 
of twelve at Vienna. Beethoven, though a born 
German, was also of the school of Albrechtsberger 
and Haydn, and lived and died in Vienna ; and 
Franz Schubert, the schoolmaster's son, whose cen- 
tenary was celebrated but the other day, was born 
at Vienna. Lanner and Strauss, the most renowned 
of valse composers, too, are in every way truly 
Austrian. In 1877 there were in Lower Austria 
alone 165 singing clubs, in Upper Austria 32, in 
Salzburg 5, in Styria 45, and in Carinthia 14. 
That of itself is indicative of the fact that Austria 
is still, as it always has been, as notable for its music 
as, say, Holland and Italy have been for their schools 
of painting. 



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INDEX 



Abaffy, 196, 202 
Adolphus of Nassau, S3, 84 
Alboin, 30, 31 
Albrecht 1.,'So, 82-QO 
Albrecht II., 94-98' 
Albrecht III., 100, 103 
Albrecht IV., 104 
Albrecht V., 104-109 
Aldenhoven, Battle of, 281 
Almanza, Battles of, 208, 210 
Amiens, Peace of, 292 
Anarchism in Austria, 379, 381 
Andernach, Battle of, 53 
Andrassy, Count, 352, 369, 372. 

373, 374 
Arminius (Hermann), 22 

Arras, Treaty of, 125 
Aschaffenburg, Battle of, 237 
Aspern, Battle of, 302, 303 
Auersperg, Prince, 360, 373 
Aulic Council, 164, 172, 208 
Aussig, Battle of, 106 
Austerlitz, Battle of, 297 
Austria, General features and 
divisions, I-15 ; agriculture, 
■ 392, 394 ; architecture, 396, 
398, 399 ; mining, 7, 8, 10, 
394. 395 ; music, 400, 402 ; 
painting, 398,399,400; science, 
389-302 ; sculpture, 399 ; litera- 
ture, 382-392 ; political con- 
stitution, ii, 12, 13, 350, 351, 
369, 370, 380 



Avars, the, 32, 33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 
4i, 42, 43, 44, 46 

B 

Badeni, Count, 379, 380 
Barbarossa, see Frederick B. 
Bartenstein, Count, 224 
Bathvanv, Count, 335, 344 
Bela IV, 65, 66 
Belgrade, no, 201, 215 (siege) 

216, 225 (siege), 226, 270, 271 

(siege) 
Bethlem Gabor, 172, 176, 179, 

180 
Beust, Count, 369 
Bladislav II., 61, 63 
Blenheim, Battle of, 205 
Bloody Diet of Prague, 151 
Bologna, 287, 321 
Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1, 22, 

373. 374. 375 
Bouvines, Battle of, 64 
Breda, Peace of, 197 
Breitenfeld, Battle of, 190 
Breslau, 107 (peace), 248 (battle) 
Brussels, i}2 (peace), 147, 273, 

277 



Cadan, Peace of, 143 
Calixtins, the, 106 

Cambray, League of, 129 
Campo Formio, Peace of, 289 
Campo Santo, Battle of, 236 



4°3 



404 



IXDEX 



Carlovitz, 203 (peace), 336 (siege) 
Casalino, Battle of, 349 
Castiglione, Battle of, 287 
Catherine II. of Russia, 254, 267, 

268 
Charlemagne, 32, 40-47, 50, 51, 

52 
Charles V., 133, 137-149 
Charles VI., 210-227, 230 
Childebert II., 33 
Childebert III., 34 
Chotusitz, Battle of, 234 
Christian IV. of Denmark, 180, 

182, 190 
Comp aetata of Prague, 106 
Conrad I., 52 
Conrad II., 56, 57 
Conrad III., 60 
Conrad IV., 66, 67 
Conrad, Otto, 63 
Cracow, 284, 285, 304, 326-329 
Crocetta, Battle of, 221 

D 

•Dagobert I., 33 
Danzig, 221 (siege), 274, 282 
Daun, Marshal, 248-255 
Desiderius, 38, 40, 41 
Dettingen, Battle of, 237 
Deutschbrod, Battle of, 106 
Dresden, 240 (peace), 245, 309 

E 

Eberhard, 53 

Erblach, Battle of, 237 

Erich of Friaul, 45, 46 

Ernest II., 56 

Ernest, Duke of Stvria, 103, 115, 

116 
Etico, Duke, 69, 224 
Eugene, Prince of Savoy, 202- 

225, 227 
Eylau, Battle .of, 299 



Ferdinand I., 140, 141, 149-154 
Ferdinand II., 175-189 
Ferdinand III., 189-194 
Ferdinand Maria, 194 



Ferdinand I. (Austrian Emperor), 

325-340 
Forcheim, Peace of, 50 
Fotzani, Battle of, 270 
Francis I. (of Lothringen), 222, 

223, 225, 234, 238, 239, 244, 

255 
Francis II. (I. of Austria), 279- 

325 
Francis Joseph, 338-381 
Francis of Carrara, 101. 
Frederick Barbarossa, 60, 62, 63 
Frederick I. of Germany, 62, 63 
Frederick II. of Germany, 64, 

65,66 
Frederick III. of Germany, 99 
Frederick I. of Austria, 63 
Frederick II. of Austria (the 

Warlike) 64, 65 
Frederick III. of Austria, 84, 88- 

94 
Frederick of Tyrol, 103, 104, 

I 1 2-1 14 
Frederick of Styria, 1 15-123 
Frederick William, Elector of 

Brandenburg, 190, 193, 195, 

197, 198, 199, 205, 218 
Frederick II. of Prussia, 230- 

268 
Frederick William II. of Prussia, 

268, 273, 274, 278 
Friedland, Battle of, 299 



Garibald I., 33 
Garibald II., 33 
Garibaldi, 349, 350 
Gelheim, Battle of, 84 
Gepida;, the, 30 
Goths, the, 24, 25, 28 
Guastalla, Battle of, 221 
Ginnegatte, Battle of, 125 
Gustavus Adolphus, 183, 184, 
186, 187, 189 

H 

Habsburg, House of, 68, 69 ctscq. 
Henry I. of Germany, 52, 53 
Henry II. of Germany, 55 



INDEX 



405 



Henrv III. of Germany, 56, S7 . 

58 

Henry IV. of Germany, 58, 59 
Henry V. of Germany, 59 
Henrv VI. of Germany, 62, 63, 

64" 
Henry VII. of Germany, 00 
Henry I., Margrave of Austria, 

55 
Henry II. (Jasomirgott), 60, 61 
Hermann, see Arminius 
Herzegovina, see Bosnia and 

Herzegovina 
Hochkirch, Battle of, 250 
Hofer, Andreas, 301, 306 
Hohenstaufens, the, 59, 63-67 
Hohenlinden, Battle of, 291 
Holstein, see Sehlcswig-Holstein 
Hrodgand of Friaul, 41 
Hubertsburg, Peace of, 255 
•Hugbert, 35 
Hunyadi, John, 109, no 
Huss, John, 105 

I 

Interim, the, 146 

Isabella, Queen of Castille, 128 

J 
Jauer, Battle of, 309 
Jena, Battle of, 299 
Joachim Murat, 310-312 
John of Habsburg, 88, 89 
John of Bohemia, 90-95 
Joseph I., 202-212, 217 
Joseph II., 233, 258-273, 315 
Jiiterbock, Battle of, 309 

K 

Kadolach, Count, 46, 47 
Kaunitz-Rietberg, Count von, 

242-244, 280 
Kemeny of Transylvania, 196 
Khevenhtiller, General, 225, 234 
Kolin, Battle of, 248 
Koniggratz, 88, 245, 359, 360 

(battle) 
Konigsegg, General, 221, 22^, 

228 



Kosciusko, 284 

Kossuth, 335, 337, 343, 344, 346 
Krotzka, Battle of, 225 
Kulm, Battles of, 60, 300 



Lacy, General, 250, 251 
Ladislaus, Posthumus, 109-111 
Latour, Count, 338 
Lechfeld, Battle of, 54 
Leipzig, Battles of, 187, 190 
Leopold I. of Austria, 54, 56 
Leopold II. of Austria, 57 
Leopold IV. of Austria, 59, 60 
Leopold V. of Austria, 60 
Leopold VI. of Austria, 62, 63 
Leopold VII. of Austria, 64 
Leopold II., son of Albrecht I., 

84, 89-94 
Leopold III., son of Albrecht II., 

90, 98-103, 112 
Leopold I., Emperor, 193, 194- 

206 
Leopold II., Emperor, 273-279 
Liegnitz, Battle of, 253 
Lilienstein, Battle of, 246 
Lissa, Battle of, 249 
Liudevit, 47 
Lodenitz, Battle of, 63 
Longobardi, the, 30-41 
Lothair, 47, 48, 49 
Loudon, General, 250, 252-234, 

270,271 
Louis the Pious, 47, 48 
Louis the German, 47-50 
Louis III., 50 
Louis IV., 51 
Louis XII., 126, 127, 129 
Louis XIII., 176 
Louis XIV., 194, 197-199, 204, 

208, 213-216 
Louis XV., 217, 236, 244 
Louis XVI., 278, 280, 281 
Luitpold, Count, 51, 52 
Luneville, Peace of, 291 
Liitzen, Battle of, 187 

M 

Maciejowice, Battle of, 284 
Mack, General, 295, 296 



406 



INDEX 



Magenta, Battle of, 349 
Malplaquet, Battle of, 208 
Mansfeld, General, 179, 180, 182 
Marchfeld, Battle of, 76, 81, 302 
Marcomanni, the, 21, 22, 23 
Marengo, Battle of, 291 
Maria Theresia, 222-260 v 
Marie Antoinette, 283 
Martel, Charles, 35-37 
Matthias Corvinus, 1 19-122 
Matthias, 166-174 
Maultasch, Margaret, 95, 99 
Maxen, Battle 0^^252 
-Maximilian I., 115, 122, 124-137 
Maximilian II., 154-161 
Mazzini, 350 
Merci, General, 221 
Metternich, Count, 309, 318, 335 
Milan, 125-127, 130, 132, 287, 
291, 300 (Decree), 331-333- 349 
Mohacz, Battle of, 201 
Moimir I., 49 
Moimir II., 51 
Molhvitz, Battle of, 231 
Montebello, Battle of, 349 
Morgarten, Battle of, 90, 92 
Miihldorf, Battle of, 92 

N 

Nafels, Battle of, 103 

Napoleon Buonaparte, 80, 286- 

312 
Napoleon III., 348, 357, 365 
Nijmegen, Peace of, 197 
Nordlingen, Battle of, 296 
Noricum, 18, 20, 32, 394 
Novara, Battle of, 345 
Novi, Battle of, 290 



Odilo, 36, 37, 38 

Odoacer, 26, 32 

Oliva, Peace of, 195 

Omladina, the, 379 

Omortag, 48 

Orsova, Siege of, 225, 226 

Otakar of Bohemia, 66, 70, 74- 

76, 302 
Otto I., of Germany, 53, 54 
Otto II., of Germany, 54 



Otto III., of Germany, 54, 55 
Otto IV., of Germany, 64 
Otto Conrad, see Conrad Otto 
Oudenarde, Battle of, 208 



Palestro, Battle of, 349 
Pannonia, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23 
Paris, Peace of, 310 
Passarovitz, Peace of, 216 
Passau, Pacification of, 147 
Pepin, 37-43 

Peterwardein, Battle of, 215 
Podgorze, Battle of, 328 
Podiebrad, King of Bohemia, 

121 
Poland, Partition of, 256, 258, 

284 
Potocki, Count, 367 
Pragmatic Sanctions, 129, 216, 

220, 222, 227 
Prague, Peace of, 362, 363 
Premysl, Otakar, of Bohemia, 

63,64 

R 

Ramilies, Battle of, 205 
Reformation, the, 139-170 
Revolution, the French, 278- 

283 _ 
Rijswijk, Peace of, 199, 203 
Rivoli, Battle of, 288 
Rossbach, Battle of, 248 
Rudolph I., 67-83, 302 
Rudolph II., 82, 159, 161-166 
Rudolph IV., 98-100 
Rijswijk, Peace of, 199, 203 



Samo, 33, 34 

San Stefano, Peace of, 373 
Saragossa, Battle of, 210 
Scharding, Treaty of, 100 
Schassburg, Battle of, 344 
Schleswig Holstein,354,355,356 
Schweidnitz, Siege of, 254, 255 
Sempach, Battle of, 90, 102 
Seven Years' War, 245-255 
Seville, Treaty of, 219 
Sigismund, 105-108, 113, 114 



INDEX 



407 



Sistova, Treaty of, 274 

Slave Trade, Abolition of the, 

320 
Sobieski, John, of Poland, 201, 

218, 256 
Solferino, Battle of, 349 
Spanish Succession, War of the, 

196-21 1 
Spurs, Battle of, no 
Stokach, Battle of, 290 
Stanislaus Leszcynski, 220-222 
Stephen I., of Hungary, 55, 57, 

58 

Svatopluk I., 49-51 
Svatopluk II., 51 
Szalankamen, Battle of, 202 



Taafe, Count, 366, 373 
Taborites, the, 106 
Tassilo I., 33 
Tassilo II., 38, 40-42 
Taus, Battle of, 106 
Teschen, Peace of, 259 
Teutoburger Forest, Battle of 

the, 22 
Teutonic Knights, the, 158 
Theodo, 34, 35 
Theodobert, 35 
Thirty Years' War, 175-192 
Tilly, 179-186 
Tilsit, Peace of, 299 
Ti >rgau, Battle of, 253 
Trausnitz, Peace of, 93 
Triple Alliance, the, 376 



U 



Uladislaus (of Poland), 109, no 
Ulfilas, 28 

Universities, Austrian, 14, 99, 391 
Utrecht, Peace of, 213, 216, 220 



Veletri, Battle of, 238 
Versailles, Treaty of, 250 
Victor Emmanuel, King of Italy, 

345. 348-350 
Villafranca, Peace of, 350 
Vinzaglio, Battle of, 349 
Virgilius, 37 

W 

Wagram, Battle of, 279, 302, 304 
Wallenstein, Albrecht von, 180- 

188 
Warna, Battle of, no 
Waterloo, Battle of, 312 
Wattignies, Battle of, 283 
Wenzel I., of Bohemia, 64, 65, 

66 
Wenzel II., of Bohemia, 76, 87 
Wenzel III., of Bohemia, 87 
Wenzel IV., of Bohemia, 103, 

105 
\\ estphalia, Peace of, 90, 192, 

103, 194, 197 
White Mountain, Battle of the, 

178 
William of Orange, 197, 198, 199 
Windischgratz, Prince, 336, 338, 

342, 343" 379 
Wolfenbiittel, Battle of, 182 
Wurzburg, Battle of, 287, 288 



Yankovitz, Battle of, 192 



Zi'skaberg, Battle of, 106 
Znaym, Battle of, 304 
Zorndorf, Battle of, 249 
Ziillichau, Battle of, 250 
Zurich, 72, 73, 96, 102, 117, 350 



The Story of the Nations. 



Messrs. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS take pleasure in 
announcing that they have in course of publication, in 
co-operation with Mr. T. Fisher Unwin, of London, a 
series of historical studies, intended to present in a graphic 
manner the stories of the different nations that have 
attained prominence in history. 

In the story form the current of each national life is 
distinctly indicated, and its picturesque and noteworthy 
periods and episodes are presented for the reader in their 
philosophical relation to each other as well as to universal 
history. 

It is the plan of the writers of the different volumes to 
enter into the real life of the peoples, and to bring them 
before the reader as they actually lived, labored, and 
struggled — as they studied and wrote, and as they amused 
themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with 
which the history of all lands begins, will not be over- 
looked, though these will be carefully distinguished from 
the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted 
historical authorities have resulted in definite conclusions. 

The subjects of the different volumes have been planned 
to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive 
epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will 
present in a comprehensive narrative the chief events in 
the great Story OF the Nations ; but it is, of course, 
not always practicable to issue the several volumes in 
their chronological order. 



THE STORY OF THE NATIONS. 



The "Stories" are printed in good readable type, and in 
handsome i2mo form. They are adequately illustrated and 
furnished with maps and indexes. Price per vol., cloth, $1.50 ; 
half morocco, gilt top, $1.75. 

The following are now ready : 



GREECE. Prof. Jas. A. Harrison. 
ROME. Arthur Gilman. 
THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer. 
CHALDEA. Z. A. Ragozin. 
GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould. 
NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen. 
SPAIN. Rev. E. E. and Susan Hale. 
HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery. 
CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church. 
THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman. 
THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley 

Lane-Poole. 
THE NORMANS. Sarah Ornejewett. 
PERSIA. S. G. W. Benjamin. 
ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Raw- 

linson. 
ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. Prof. J. 

P. Mahaffy. 
ASSYRIA. Z. A. Ragozin. 
THE GOTHS. Henry Bradley. 
IRELAND. Hon. Emily Lawless. 
TURKEY. Stanley Lane-Poole. 
MEDIA, BABYLON, AND PERSIA. 

Z. A. Ragozin. 
MEDIAEVAL FRANCE. Prof. Gus- 

tave Masson. 
HOLLAND. Prof. J. Thorold Rogers. 
MEXICO. Susan Hale. 
PHCENICIA. Geo. Rawlinson. 
THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zim- 

mern. 
EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. 

Church. 
THE BARBARY CORSAIRS. Stan- 
ley Lane-Pool. 
RUSSIA. W. R. Morfill. 
THE JEWS UNDER ROME. W. D. 

Morrison. 
SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh. 
SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. 

A. Hug. 
PORTUGAL. H. Morse-Stephens. 
THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. C. W. 

C. Oman. 
SICILY. E. A. Freeman. 
THE TUSCAN REPUBLICS. Bella 

Duffy. 
POLAND. W. R. Morfill. 
PARTHIA. Geo, Rawlinson, 



JAPAN. David Murray. 

THE CHRISTIAN RECOVERY OF 

SPAIN. H. E. Watts. 
AUSTRALASIA. Greville Tregar- 

then. 
SOUTHERN AFRICA. Geo. M. 

Theal. 
VENICE. AletheaWiel. 
THE CRUSADES. T. S. Archer and 

C. L. Kingsford. 
VEDIC INDIA. Z. A. Ragozin. 
BOHEMIA. C. E. Maurice. 
CANADA. J. G. Bourinot. 
THE BALKAN STATES. 'William 

Miller. 
BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. 

Frazer. 
MODERN FRANCE. Andre Le Bon. 
THE BUILDINGOFTHE BRITISH 

EMPIRE. Alfred T. Story. Two 

vols. 
THE FRANKS. Lewis Sergeant. 
THE WEST INDIES. Amos K. 

Fiske. 
THE PEOPLE OF ENGLAND IN 

THE 19TH CENTURY. Justin 

McCarthy, M. P. Two vols. 

Other volumes in preparation are : 
MODERN SPAIN. Major Martin A. 

S. Hume. 
CHINA. Robt. K. Douglass. 
AUSTRIA, THE HOME OF THE 

HAPSBURG DYNASTY, FROM 

1282 TO THE PRESENT DAY. 

Sydney Whitman. 
THE UNITED STATES, 1775-1897. 

A. C. McLaughlin, Professor of 

American History, University of 

Michigan. In two vols. 
BUDDHIST INDIA. Prof. T. W. 

Rhys-Davids. 
MOHAMMEDAN INDIA. Stanley 

Lane-Poole. 
THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. 

Helen A. Smith. 
WALES AND CORNWALL. Owen 

M. Edwards. 
THE ITALIAN KINGDOM, 



Heroes of the Nations. 



EDITED BY 



EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A., 
Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 



A Series of biographical studies of the lives and work 
of a number of representative historical characters about 
whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations 
to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in 
many instances, as types of the several National ideals. 
With the life of each typical character will be presented 
a picture of the National conditions surrounding him 
during his career. 

The narratives are the work of writers who are recog- 
nized authorities on their seveial subjects, and, while 
thoroughly trustworthy as history, will present picturesque 
and dramatic " stories " of the Men and of the events con- 
nected with them. 

To the Life of each " Hero " will be given one duo- 
decimo volume, handsomely printed in large type, pro- 
vided with maps and adequately illustrated according to 
the special requirements of the several subjects. The 
volumes will be sold separately as follows : 

Large 12°, cloth extra $150 

Half morocco, uncut edges, gilt top . . I 75 



HEROES OF THE NATIONS. 

Nelson, and the Naval Supremacy of England. By W. Clark Russell, author of 

" The Wreck of the Grosvenor," etc. 
Gustavus Adolphus, and the Struggle of Protestantism for Existence. By C. R. 

L. Fletcher, M.A., late Fellow of All Souls' College. 
Pericles, and the Golden Age of Athens. By Evelyn Abbott, M.A. 
Theodoric the Goth, the Barbarian Champion of Civilisation. By Thomas 

Hodgkin, author of " Italy and Her Invaders," etc. 
Sir Philip Sidney, and the Chivalry of England. By H. R. Fox-Bourne, author of 

" The Life of John Locke," etc. 
Julius Caesar, and the Organisation of the Roman Empire. By W. Ward 

Fowler, M.A., Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. 
John Wyclif, Last of the Schoolmen, and First of the English Reformers. By 

Lewis Sergeant, author of " New Greece," etc. 
Napoleon, 'Warrior and Ruler, and the Military Supremacy of Revolutionary 

France. By W. O'Connor Morris. 
Henry of Navarre, and the Huguenots of France. By P. F. Willert, M.A., Fel- 
low of Exeter College, Oxford. 
Cicero, and the Fall of the Roman Republic. By J. L. Strachan-Davidson, M.A., 

Fellow of Balliol College, Oxford. 
Abraham Lincoln, and the Downfall of American. Slavery. By Noah Brooks. 
Prince Henry (of Portugal) the Navigator, and the Age of Discovery. By C. \. 

Beazley, Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. 
Julian the Philosopher, and the Last Struggle of Paganism against Christian! \ 

By Alice Gardner. 
Louis XIV., and the Zenith of the French Monarchy. By Arthur Hassa -., 

M.A., Senior Student of Christ Church College, Oxford. 
Charles XII,, and the Collapse of the Swedish Empire, 1682-1719. By R. Ni^bet 

Bain. 
Lorenzo de' Medici, and Florence in the 15th Century. By Edward Armstrong, 

M.A., Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. 
Jeanne d'Arc. Her Life and Death. By Mrs. Oliphant. 
Christopher Columbus. His Life and Voyages. By Washington Irving. 
Robert the Bruce, and the Struggle for Scottish Independence. By Sir Herbert 

Maxwell, M.P. 
Hannibal, Soldier, Statesman, Patriot ; and the Crisis of the Struggle between 

Carthage and Rome. By W. O'Connor Morris, Sometime Scholar of Oriel 

College, Oxford. 
Ulysses S. Grant, and the Period of National Preservation and Reconstruction, 

1822-1885. By Lieut.-Col. William Conant Church. 
Robert E. Lee, and the Southern Confederacy, 1807-1870. By Prof. Henry 

Alexander White, of the Washington and Lee University. 
The Cid Campeador, and the Waning of the Crescent in the 'West. By H. 

Butler Clarke, Fellow of St. John's College, Oxford. 
Saladin, and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. By Stanley Lane-Poole, 

author of " The Moors in Spain," etc. 
Bismarck, and the New German Empire. How it Arose and What it Displaced. 

By W. J. Headlam, M.A., Fellow of King's College. 

To be followed by : 
Moltke, and the Military Supremacy of Germany. By Spencer Wilkinson, 

London University. 
Judas Maccabceus, the Conflict between Hellenism and Hebraism. By Israel 

Abrahams, author of " The Jews of the Middle Ages." 



G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, New York and London, 












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